Cited by 1,543Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive ProcessesMental Health Research TopicsGender Roles and Identity Studies

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Explaining the gender difference in depressive symptoms.

Nolen-Hoeksema, Susan, Larson, Judith, Grayson, Carla·1999·Journal of Personality and Social Psychology

DOI 10.1037/0022-3514.77.5.1061

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Abstract

It was hypothesized that women are more vulnerable to depressive symptoms than men because they are more likely to experience chronic negative circumstances (or strain), to have a low sense of mastery, and to engage in ruminative coping. The hypotheses were tested in a 2-wave study of approximately 1,100 community-based adults who were 25 to 75 years old. Chronic strain, low mastery, and rumination were each more common in women than in men and mediated the gender difference in depressive symptoms. Rumination amplified the effects of mastery and, to some extent, chronic strain on depressive symptoms. In addition, chronic strain and rumination had reciprocal effects on each other over time, and low mastery also contributed to more rumination. Finally, depressive symptoms contributed to more rumination and less mastery over time.

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“This gender difference in depressive symptoms appears to emerge in early adolescence and then remains throughout the adult life span ( Kessler et al., 1993; Nolen-Hoeksema & Girgus, 1994).”
Background
Ruminative coping with depressed mood following loss.
Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Parker, L. E., & Larson, J. (1994) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.67.1.92 · Cited by 932 · cited 1×
“In turn, a number of laboratory and field studies have shown that people who engage in rumination when distressed show longer and more severe periods of depressive symptoms and are more likely to develop full depressive disorders than those who do not engage in rumination (Alloy & Abramson, 1997; Nolen-Hoeksema & Morr…”
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“The RRS [44] is a 22-item self-report for assessing ruminative coping responses to depressed mood.”
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“Given gender differences reported on childhood depression and coping styles [1, 7], the item property may also operate differently across different groups (e.”
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Graf, A. S., Ramsey, M. A., Patrick, J. H., & Gentzler, A. L. (2015) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-015-9693-x · Cited by 11
“, Non-Ruminators) should have significantly differed from the others in the gender composition based on previous findings that women tend to both ruminate (Johnson and Whisman 2013; Nolen-Hoeksema et al. 1999) and savor (Wood et al.”
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Passive Response to Stress in Adolescent Female and Adult Male Mice after Intermittent Nicotine Exposure in Adolescence
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“This is in agreement with prior findings in rats [44] and is consistent with the higher vulnerability to depression in women than in men [45,46] and with the higher prevalence of passive coping strategy adoption by women, compared to men [47-51].”
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“Healthy young adults self-report rumination scores averaging around 42–44, women with sexual violence history report average scores in the 50's, and depressed individuals report scores closer to or above 60 (Millon et al., 2018; Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 1999; Shors et al., 2017).”
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“…women are more likely to exhibit a cognitive style characterized by negative self-evaluation, which can bias the information processing of attention, memory, and interpretation, making women more prone to negative emotions and thus increasing their risk of depression (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 1999).”
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“Depression is more widespread, in fact, and up to two times higher in women than in their male peers [36,37].”
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“Some studies suggest that older women are more likely than older men to experience stressful life events but other studies do not find this gender difference (Katsumata et al., 2005; Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 1999; Rubio et al., 2016).”
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“In accordance with the biopsychosocial model, reasons for this sex disparity are multifactorial and include genetic, psychosocial, and environmental etiologies (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 1999; Piccinelli and Wilkinson, 2000).”
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“Women have been shown to report a lower sense of control over their lives than men (Nolen-Hoeksema, Larsen, & Grayson, 1999 ), as well as significantly more social support (Ashton & Fuehrer, 1993 ).”
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Authors: Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Larson, J., & Grayson, C.
Venue: Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 1999
Volume: 77
Issue: 5
Pages: 1061-1072
ISSN: 0022-3514 (ISSN-L)
1939-1315
DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.77.5.1061
OpenAlex: W2083186275
Cited by: 1,543
References: 0
Citations by year: 2026: 20 · 2025: 38 · 2024: 41 · 2023: 65 · 2022: 74 · 2021: 52 · 2020: 103 · 2019: 45 · 2018: 64 · 2017: 99 · 2016: 81 · 2015: 71 · 2014: 70 · 2013: 55 · 2012: 62
FWCI: 28.68
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders: National Institute of Mental Health (MH51817, R01MH051817)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Anxiety, Depression, Psychometrics, Treatment, Cognitive Processes
Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Mental Health Research Topics
Social Sciences › Gender Studies › Gender Roles and Identity Studies
Keywords: gender differences, depressive symptoms, rumination, chronic strain, sense of mastery, mediation, reciprocal effects, coping
MeSH terms: Adaptation, Psychological, Adult, Aged, California, Depression, Female, Gender Identity, Humans, Interview, Psychological, Male, Middle Aged, Models, Psychological, Negativism, Population Surveillance, Psychiatric Status Rating Scales, Sex Factors, Socioeconomic Factors, Stress, Psychological, Thinking, Sex Distribution

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Explaining the gender difference in depressive symptoms.

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