Cited by 1,393Social and Intergroup PsychologyPersonality Traits and PsychologyPsychological Testing and Assessment

The DOI matches its Crossref record.

Using the implicit association test to measure self-esteem and self-concept

Greenwald, Anthony G., Farnham, Shelly D.·2000·Journal of Personality and Social Psychology

Open this paper in CoChat — free account

Abstract

Experiment 1 used the Implicit Association Test (IAT; A. G. Greenwald, D. E. McGhee, & J. L. K. Schwartz, 1998) to measure self-esteem by assessing automatic associations of self with positive or negative valence. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) showed that two IAT measures defined a factor that was distinct from, but weakly correlated with, a factor defined by standard explicit (self-report) measures of self-esteem. Experiment 2 tested known-groups validity of two IAT gender self-concept measures. Compared with well-established explicit measures, the IAT measures revealed triple the difference in measured masculinity-femininity between men and women. Again, CFA revealed construct divergence between implicit and explicit measures. Experiment 3 assessed the self-esteem IAT's validity in predicting cognitive reactions to success and failure. High implicit self-esteem was associated in the predicted fashion with buffering against adverse effects of failure on two of four measures.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1037/0022-3514.79.6.1022

Cites

Statistics

Recomputing p-values needs the paper’s full text.

Claims the paper makes

We couldn’t retrieve this paper’s full text, so its claims and self-check weren’t run. The registry and citation checks still apply.

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

Sorted by citations

Items 801–900 of 1,014

An indirect measure of negative self reference interacts with academic failure to predict continuing depressive symptomatology
Sheppes, G., Meiran, N., Spivak, O., & Shahar, G. (2010) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2010.08.002 · Cited by 7
“For example, Gemar and colleagues (2001) used an elegant stress–diathesis laboratory procedure, whereby remitted and non-depressed individuals were administered the widely accepted Implicit Association Test (IAT, Greenwald & Farnham, 2000) before and after a negative mood induction.”
Method
Personality, Preferences and Socioeconomic Behavior
Ferguson, E., Zhao, K., & Smillie, L. D. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.044 · Cited by 6
Explicit and Implicit Self-esteem and Aggression: Differential Effects of Agency and Communion
Snowden, R. J., Amad, S., Morley, E., Butkute, N., Budd, R., Jackson, L., Abbasi, N., & Gray, N. S. (2021) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/0886260520985490 · Cited by 5
“Most of the literature has noted that there appears to be little or even no relationship between a persons’ explicit self-esteem and their results on implicit tests of self-esteem (Bosson, Swann, & Pennebaker, 2000; Greenwald & Farnham, 2000).”
Am I Playing Better Now?
Riahi, M., & Watson, B. A. (2021) · Proceedings of the ACM on Computer Graphics and Interactive Techniques · doi:10.1145/3451269 · Cited by 5
“• We introduce a new application of the implicit association test (IAT) [19, 26] to measure gaming engagement.”
Reducing Implicit Cognitive Biases Through the Performing Arts
García‐Arch, J., Ventura-Gabarró, C., Adamuz, P. L., Calvo, P. G., & Fuentemilla, L. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.614816 · Cited by 5
“The IAT has also Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 1 May 2021 | Volume 12 | Article 614816 been shown to be reliable across test-retest experimental designs (Bosson et al., 2000; Dasgupta et al., 2000; Greenwald and Farnham, 2000; Greenwald and Nosek, 2001).”
Background
A Systematic Review of Multilevel Influenced Risk-Taking in Helicopter and Small Airplane Normal Operations
Harris, M. R., Fein, E. C., & Machin, M. A. (2022) · Frontiers in Public Health · doi:10.3389/fpubh.2022.823276 · Cited by 5
The size of shame and pride
Soriano, C., & Valenzuela, J. (2022) · Review of Cognitive Linguistics · doi:10.1075/rcl.00108.sor · Cited by 5
Influence of bodily states on cognition: A web-based study in individuals with body integrity dysphoria
Ho, J. T., Saetta, G., & Lenggenhager, B. (2023) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2023.01.020 · Cited by 5
Beautiful Strangers: Physical Evaluation of Strangers Is Influenced by Friendship Expectation
Kononov, N., & Ein‐Gar, D. (2023) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/01461672231180150 · Cited by 6
“People tend to evaluate themselves as better than average (Alicke & Govorun, 2005), interpret traits self-servingly (Dunning et al., 1989), and associate themselves with positive words (Greenwald & Farnham, 2000).”
Background
Explicit and Implicit Attitudes and Attitude Changes toward Tourism Destinations: Las Vegas, USA, versus Jeongseon, South Korea
Jang, D. (2015) · International Journal of Tourism Research · doi:10.1002/jtr.2057 · Cited by 6
Implicit Self-Importance in an Interpersonal Pronoun Categorization Task
Fetterman, A. K., Robinson, M. D., & Gilbertson, E. P. (2014) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-014-9205-x · Cited by 5
“What we know here comes from a literature using the Implicit Association Test or IAT (Greenwald and Farnham 2000).”
Influential
Using PsyScope to conduct IAT experiments on Macintosh computers
Borton, J. L. S., Oakes, M. A., Wyk, M. E. V., et al. (2007) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/bf03192970 · Cited by 5
“These correlations are similar to those found in previous research (Greenwald & Farnham, 2000), indicating a small but positive relation between implicit and explicit self-esteem.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluential
Effects of explicit and implicit self-esteem on in-group favoritism
Harashima, M., & Oguchi, T. (2007) · THE JAPANESE JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY · doi:10.2130/jjesp.47.69 · Cited by 5
Unconscious Self-processing: Subconscious, Unintentional or Subliminal?
Geng, H.-Y., & Xu, S. (2011) · On thinking · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-15423-2_6 · Cited by 2
Entertainment, Culture, and Media Art
Nakatsu, R., Tosa, N., Rauterberg, M., et al. (2015) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-4560-52-8_16-1 · Cited by 5
성취 지향적, 관계 지향적 우울성향자의 암묵적, 명시적 자존감
박, 승., 최, 혜., & 이, 훈. (2011) · The Korean Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.15842/kjcp.2011.30.1.016 · Cited by 3
Relating self-esteem with schadenfreude using the implicit association test
Fujii, T., & Sawada, M. (2014) · JAPANESE JOURNAL OF RESEARCH ON EMOTIONS · doi:10.4092/jsre.21.114 · Cited by 5
The impact of self-imagery on aspects of the self-concept in individuals with high levels of eating disorder cognitions
Harlowe, J. C., Farrar, S. T., Stopa, L. L., & Turner, H. M. (2018) · Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2018.05.002 · Cited by 6
Self-esteem consistency predicts the course of therapy in depressed patients
Eberl, C., Winkler, I., Pawelczack, S., Tröbitz, E., Rinck, M., Becker, E., & Lindenmeyer, J. (2018) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0199957 · Cited by 8
“Greenwald and Farnham [12] showed that in general, people hold a positive implicit attitude towards themselves (positivity bias), while ESE and ISE are only weakly correlated (see also [11,13]).”
Background
Implicit association Self-concept test in studying of violence-related cognitions
Plotka, I., Simane-Vigante, L., & Blumenau, N. (2018) · Social Psychology and Society · doi:10.17759/sps.2018090317 · Cited by 5
“Measures Violence Self-Concept IAT has been designed on the basis of the Self-Concept IAT by Greenwald and Farnham [7].”
Method
Do Patients Unconsciously Associate Suggestions for More-invasive Treatment with Better Care?
Kortlever, J. T. P., Ottenhoff, J. S. E., Tran, T. T. H., et al. (2019) · Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research · doi:10.1097/corr.0000000000000608 · Cited by 5
Discrepancies of Implicit and Explicit Self-Esteem as Predictors of Attributional Bias and Paranoia
Park, Y. J., Park, J. Y., Chung, K., Song, Y.-M., & Jhung, K. (2019) · Psychiatry Investigation · doi:10.30773/pi.2018.12.24 · Cited by 5
The Culturally Situated Self
Rosenmann, A., & Kurman, J. (2019) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190679743.003.0017 · Cited by 6
Assessment of Affinity towards Diversity Using the Implicit Association Test and Self-Reports
Corral-Frías, V. O., Lucas, M. Y., Corral-Frías, N. S., Corral-Verdugo, V., & Tapia-Fonllem, C. O. (2019) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su11205825 · Cited by 5
States and Situations, Traits and Environments
Asendorpf, J. B., & Rauthmann, J. F. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.007 · Cited by 10
Implicit and Explicit Self-Identification as a Drug User in People Who Used Heroin and Methamphetamine
Chen, J., Zhang, M., Zhou, J., Li, X., Zhang, F., & Shen, M. (2021) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.685110 · Cited by 8
The Elusive Quantification of Self-Esteem: Current Challenges and Future Directions
Dominicis, S. D., & Molinario, E. (2022) · Health informatics · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-94212-0_11 · Cited by 6
Video Games and Attitude Change - Can We Reliably Measure This? The Challenges of Empirical Study Design
Kolek, L., Šisler, V., & Brom, C. (2018) · International Conference Games and Learning Alliance · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-11548-7_46 · Cited by 2
Differences in personality traits in children and adult bilinguals: A pilot study in a bilingual Friulian–Italian context
Fabbro, A., Crescentini, C., Pascoli, E., et al. (2019) · Bilingualism Language and Cognition · doi:10.1017/s136672891900052x · Cited by 5
“An Implicit Association Test (Greenwald & Farnham, 2000) – to implicitly assess selfesteem or prejudice against or in favour of different languages – could shed further light on the origins of the differences disclosed by bilinguals, in crucial aspects of personality and character (such as self-directedness, which the…”
Naïve beliefs about self-esteem's importance
Vaughan‐Johnston, T. I., & Jacobson, J. A. (2021) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2021.110635 · Cited by 6
Collective narcissism and explicit and implicit collective self-esteem revisited: A preregistered replication and extension
Fatfouta, R., Żemojtel-Piotrowska, M. A., Piotrowski, J. P., & Kościelniak, M. (2021) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2021.104144 · Cited by 5
Close Encounters of the Initial Kind: Implicit Self-Esteem, Name-Letter Similarity, and Social Distance
Kocan, S. E., & Curtis, G. J. (2009) · Basic and Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/01973530802659752 · Cited by 5
“The ISES was used as an implicit self-esteem measure in preference to other commonly used measures: the Implicit Association Test (IAT; Greenwald & Farnham, 2000 ) and the Initials and Birthday Preference Task (IBPT; Bosson et al, 2000 ).”
Method
Preventie van psychopathologie bij kinderen en adolescenten: het belang van zelfwaarderingsinterventies
Bos, A. E. R., Muris, P., & Huijding, J. (2011) · Psychologie & gezondheid · doi:10.1007/s12483-011-0044-2 · Cited by 6
A Review on Implicit Stigma of Mental Illness
Xiao-Gang, W. A. N. G., Tian-Zi, Y., & Huang, X. (2013) · Advances in Psychological Science · doi:10.3724/sp.j.1042.2012.00384 · Cited by 5
“…(Teachman et al., 2006)。以“自己-他人”作为心理疾病的类别标签, 心理疾病患者对自身表现出明显的负面评价, 认为自己是“坏的”、“罪恶的”、“罪有应得的” (Rüsch et al., 2009b; 2010b; 2010c)。采用其他属性材料作为心理疾病标签的研究也发现, 患者自身对于心理疾病患者存在自动化的负面评价 , 表现出明显的自我内隐污名 (Rüsch et al., 2009c; 2010d)。但是与公众相比, 心理疾病患者对于心理疾病的内隐负面评价略显积极(Rüsch et al., 2011)。研究者认为, 这可能是由于心理疾病患者…”
Culture and Social Psychology
Miller, J. G., & Boyle, J. P. (2012) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118133880.hop205024 · Cited by 7
The Rosenberg and the Rest: Meta-Research on the Measurement of Self-Esteem in Personality and Social Psychology (2004-2015)Preprint
Pegler, A., Gregg, A. P., & Hart, C. M. (2019) · PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/aps9m · Cited by 5
Faulty assumptions: A comment on Blanton, Jaccard, Gonzales, and Christie (2006)Preprint
Nosek, B. A., & Sriram, N. (2016) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/zcfbf · Cited by 5
How Does Our Voice Reflect Who We Are? Connecting the Voice and the Self Using Implicit Association Tests
Tucker, A. E., Crow, K., Wark, M., Eichorn, N., & van Mersbergen, M. (2024) · Journal of Voice · doi:10.1016/j.jvoice.2024.10.018 · Cited by 4
Do implicit measures improve suicide risk prediction? An 18‐month prospective study using different tasks
Scheunemann, J., Jelinek, L., Peth, J., Runde, A., Arlt, S., Gallinat, J., & Kühn, S. (2021) · Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior · doi:10.1111/sltb.12785 · Cited by 4
“This is mostly done by a computerized task called the implicit association test (IAT; Greenwald & Farnham, 2000).”
Method
Implicit bias, disproportionate discipline, and teacher responsibility for instruction as prevention
Scott, T. M. (2021) · Preventing School Failure Alternative Education for Children and Youth · doi:10.1080/1045988x.2021.1937021 · Cited by 8
“Assessments of implicit bias using the Implicit Association Test (Greenwald & Farnham, 2000) have demonstrated that most Americans, regardless of race, exhibit at least some pro-White and anti-Black bias (Jacoby-Senghor et al., 2016; Levinson et al., 2010; Maina et al., 2018), a bias to which the…”
Method
The relationship between explicit and implicit personality: Evidence from the Big Five and trait emotional intelligence
حسن, ن. ن., Petrides, K. V., & Hull, L. (2023) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0287013 · Cited by 4
“Two years later, Greenwald and Farnham [8] introduced this measurement method to the personality field.”
BackgroundMethod
Measuring Gender Status Beliefs
Montgomery, B., Park, H., Burrill, L. B., & Melamed, D. (2024) · Socius Sociological Research for a Dynamic World · doi:10.1177/23780231241245845 · Cited by 5
“Our ICC for the standard long-form IAT is similar to the test-retest reliabilities found in other IATs, which typically range from .60 to .69 (Bosson, Swann, and Pennebaker 2000; Dasgupta and Greenwald 2001; Greenwald and Farnham 2000; Greenwald and Nosek 2001).”
Measuring Self-Esteem of Deaf/Hard of Hearing College Students
Jin, Z. (2013) · Journal of Special Education and Rehabilitation · doi:10.2478/v10215-011-0033-3 · Cited by 4
《原著論文》パーソナリティ障害と顕在的-潜在的自尊感情間の乖離との関連
市川, 玲., 望月, 聡., Ichikawa, R., & Mochizuki, S. (2015) · The Japanese journal of psychology · doi:10.4992/jjpsy.86.14036 · Cited by 3
Narcissism and self-esteem revisited: The relationships between the subscales of the NPI and explicit/implicit self-esteem
Pilch, I., & Hyla, M. (2017) · Polish Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1515/ppb-2017-0030 · Cited by 8
“Currently, the two most commonly used measures of ISE are the Implicit Association Test (IAT; Greenwald & Farnham, 2000) and the Name-Letter Test (NLT; Koole, Dijksterhuis, & van Knippenberg, 2001; Bosson et al., 2003).”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Interpersonal and intrapersonal approach and avoidance motives after social rejection
Hess, Y. D., Valdman, T. L., & Knowles, M. L. (2018) · Comprehensive Results in Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/23743603.2019.1684819 · Cited by 5
“and My soul shall abhor you” : Implicit processing of social disgust
Berger, U., & Anaki, D. (2020) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2020.110360 · Cited by 4
Temperament and Brain Networks of Attention
Rothbart, M. K., Posner, M. I., & Sheese, B. E. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.016 · Cited by 8
Unintentional racial microaggressions and the social unconscious
McCann, M., & Tudor, K. (2022) · International Journal of Applied Psychoanalytic Studies · doi:10.1002/aps.1753 · Cited by 4
Does an experimentally induced self-association elicit affective self-prioritisation?
Orellana-Corrales, G., Matschke, C., Schäfer, S., & Wesslein, A. (2022) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1177/17470218221124928 · Cited by 4
“Beyond the cognitive domain, it has also been shown that familiar self-associated stimuli can positively influence attitudes in comparison to equivalent stimuli that are associated with others (Brewer, 1979; Greenwald & Farnham, 2000; Koole et al., 2001; Shu & Peck, 2011).”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
Conceptual framework for students’ social psychological monitoring
Avdoshina, N. V., Egorova, S. V., Vaskina, Y. V., Zorina, S. V., Demina, A. I., & Nesterov, A. Y. (2022) · Semiotic studies · doi:10.18287/2782-2966-2022-2-3-87-101 · Cited by 4
A Workplace Equality Workshop for the Control Engineering Classroom
Bauer, M., & Heskebeck, F. (2022) · IFAC-PapersOnLine · doi:10.1016/j.ifacol.2022.09.231 · Cited by 4
Social identity threat attenuates own-race bias in face recognition under the “Asian-Caucasian” context
Gong, Y., Zhao, X., Ma, Q., & Zhou, G. (2024) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2024.104624 · Cited by 4
Implicit Attitudes Toward the Self Over Time
Peetz, J., Jordan, C. H., & Wilson, A. E. (2013) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/15298868.2012.762619 · Cited by 5
“A couple of past studies suggest, however, that (temporally non-specific) implicit self-esteem can have implications for motivationrelevant judgments and behavior (Dijksterhuis, 2004, Experiment 5b; Greenwald & Farnham, 2000, Experiment 3).”
A környezeti identitás szerepe a környezettudatos magatartásban – a mérési lehetőségek értékelése
Piskóti, M. (2015) · Vezetéstudomány / Budapest Management Review · doi:10.14267/veztud.2015.05.02 · Cited by 4
The Role of Implicit Mechanisms in Buffering Self-Esteem from Social Threats
Leitner, J. B., & Forbes, C. E. (2014) · Advances in psychology, mental health, and behavioral studies (APMHBS) book series · doi:10.4018/978-1-4666-6599-6.ch009 · Cited by 4
Adaptation française d’une version courte de l’Inventaire des rôles sexués de Bem pour enfants (Child Sex Role Inventory)
Clément-Guillotin, C., & Fontayne, P. (2011) · Psychologie Française · doi:10.1016/j.psfr.2010.11.004 · Cited by 4
Performance Errors of in Group/ Out Group Stimuli and Valence Association in the Implicit Association Test: Brain Bias of Ingroup Favoritism
Guex, R. (2011) · The Open Neuroscience Journal · doi:10.2174/1874082001105010016 · Cited by 4
“, social desirability effects become less effective when feedback is suppressed: [35]), usually the IAT errors are not considered in the reports of classic and modified IATs [36, 37].”
Background
Assessing Cross-Cultural Competence: A Working Framework and Prototype Measures for Use in Military Contexts
Brenneman, M. W., Klafehn, J. L., Burrus, J. T., Roberts, R. D., & Kochert, J. F. (2016) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-42166-7_8 · Cited by 4
Accuracy in Person Perception
Biesanz, J. C., & Wallace, J. D. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.006 · Cited by 7
Personality in Clinical Psychology
Widiger, T. A., & McCabe, G. A. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.042 · Cited by 5
Aggressiveness in patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder as assessed by the Implicit Relational Assessment Procedure
Michnevich, T., Schmidt, A. F., Scheunemann, J., Moritz, S., Miegel, F. S., & Jelinek, L. (2021) · Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science · doi:10.1016/j.jcbs.2021.06.008 · Cited by 4
Explicit and Implicit Measures of Identity Diffusion in Adolescent Girls With Borderline Personality Disorder
Erlač, S. P., Bucik, V., & Kumperščak, H. G. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2021.805390 · Cited by 4
“There has been a significant debate whether implicit measures assess separable but positively related processes to explicit measures (23, 38) or whether direct and indirect measures reflect conceptually overlapping mental content expressed in a different manner and influenced by other factors (39).”
BackgroundMethod
Self‐Regulation of State Self‐Esteem Following Threat
vanDellen, M. R., Bradfield, E. K., & Hoyle, R. H. (2010) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781444318111.ch19 · Cited by 5
Editorial: Implicit representations and personality
Asendorpf, J. B. (2007) · International Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1080/00207590601066997 · Cited by 4
“Whereas IATs were originally applied to the assessment of implicit attitudes and prejudices, more recent applications include not only implicit self‐esteem and personality self‐concept (Asendorpf, Banse, & Mucke, 2002 ; Egloff & Schmukle, 2002 ; Greenwald & Farnham, 2000 ) but also the implicit evaluation of significa…”
Method
Bias in the mirror
Sukhera (2018) · doi:10.26481/dis.20181129js · Cited by 4
Reading Personality: Assessing “Big Three” Traits with the Sentence Completion Method
Joy, S. P. (2017) · Current Issues in Personality Psychology · doi:10.5114/cipp.2017.69857 · Cited by 3
Why Do Researchers and Educators Still Use the Rosenberg Scale? Alternative New Concepts and Measurement Tools for Self-Esteem
Yamasaki, K. (2019) · Journal of Psychology and Behavioral Science · doi:10.15640/jpbs.v7n1a9 · Cited by 4
Narrative Identity in the Social World
McLean, K. C., Syed, M., Haraldsson, K. G., & Lowe, L. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.035 · Cited by 2
Multiple social identities: a cognitive consistency model on identity integration
Roth, J., Steffens, M. C., & Strack, F. (2025) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/15298868.2025.2526465 · Cited by 6
“Another crucial assumption of Greenwald and colleagues’ Balanced Identity Theory (2002) is that the self is mostly associated with positive characteristics (De Raedt et al., 2006; Greenwald & Farnham, 2000; Olson et al., 2007; Yamaguchi et al., 2007).”
The Relationship of Explicit and Implicit Self-Esteem, Situation, and Aggression
Kim, M. J., & Lee, K.-H. (2014) · Korea Journal of Counseling · doi:10.15703/kjc.15.4.201408.1343 · Cited by 3
The Effect of Self-compassion on Self-regulation during Negative Events: In Comparison with Self-esteem
박세란, & Lee, H.-J. (2015) · The Korean Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.15842/kjcp.2015.34.4.003 · Cited by 3
A comprehensive analysis of the psychometric properties of the contingencies of self-worth scale (CSWS)
Perinelli, E., Alessandri, G., Vecchione, M., & Mancini, D. (2020) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-020-01007-5 · Cited by 4
Exploring the Role of Explicit and Implicit Self-Esteem and Self-Compassion in Anxious and Depressive Symptomatology Following Acquired Brain Injury
Desdentado, L., Cebolla, A., Miragall, M., Lloréns, R., Navarro, M., & Baños, R. (2020) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-020-01553-w · Cited by 3
Visuospatial perspective shifting and relational self-association in dispositional shame and guilt
Chiu, C., Siu, C. Y., Ng, H. C., & Baldwin, M. W. (2021) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2021.103140 · Cited by 3
Personality at Work
Salgado, J. F., Anderson, N. R., & Moscoso, S. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.040 · Cited by 4
Entertainment, Culture, and Media Art
Nakatsu, R., Tosa, N., Rauterberg, M., et al. (2016) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-4560-50-4_16 · Cited by 3
Relationship between implicit and explicit attitudes towards domestic and foreign food brands and personality traits
Plotka, I., Urbane, B., & Blumenau, N. (2022) · Engineering for Rural Development · doi:10.22616/erdev.2022.21.tf150 · Cited by 3
“The procedure for the two-category Self-Concept IAT was developed on the basis of the IAT reviewed in [46].”
Method
Assessment of implicit COVID-19 attitudes using affective priming for pro-vaccine and vaccine-hesitant individuals
Moro, S. S., & Steeves, J. K. E. (2023) · Journal of Health Psychology · doi:10.1177/13591053231176261 · Cited by 3
“Additionally, affective priming has been used to evaluate whether implicit self-esteem reflects explicit self-esteem evaluations based on introspectively inaccessible associations to the self (Spalding and Hardin, 1999; see Greenwald and Farnham, 2000 for a review).”
Method
SELF ESTEEM, RELIGIOSITY, AND PSYCHOLOGICAL ADJUSTMENT AMONG UNIVERSITY STUDENTS
Arshad, T., & Uzair, Z. (2017) · PJPPRP · doi:10.62663/pjpprp.v8i1.78 · Cited by 4
“Self-esteem is revealed in one’s beliefs (I am worthwhile/worthless), emotions (pride/shame), and in behavior like confidence/caution (Greenwald & Farnham, 2000).”
Background
Effects of Self-Beliefs on Academic Achievement and Vice Versa
Valentine, J. C., & DuBois, D. L. (2005) · Emerald Group Publishing Limited eBooks · doi:10.1108/978-1-60752-665-020251006 · Cited by 3
Self-Approach Tendencies: Relations With Explicit and Implicit Self-Evaluations
Swinkels, L. M. J., Gramser, H., Becker, E. S., & Rinck, M. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00309 · Cited by 3
“However, questionnaire measures of explicit self-evaluations tend to be more reliable than reaction time measures of implicit self-evaluations (Greenwald and Farnham, 2000); therefore, we may stand a better chance of finding a relation between self-approach and explicit selfevaluations, if there is one.”
Background
Multisensory Facial Stimulation Implicitly Improves Evaluations of the Goodness of Attractive Others
Jeong, J. W., Chang, E., & Kim, H. T. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01239 · Cited by 3
Models of Personality Structure
Raad, B. D., & Barelds, D. P. H. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.012 · Cited by 4
Cognitive Processes and Models
Matthews, G. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.028 · Cited by 5
Testing a new indirect measure of general self‐worth: The Self‐esteem Questionnaire‐based Implicit Association Test
Yovel, I., Aviram, G., Kahana, N., & Katz, B. A. (2021) · British Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjso.12472 · Cited by 6
Emotional recognition of children with high-functioning autism spectrum disorder
Eto, M., Sakai, S., Yamamoto, T., Kagitani-Shimono, K., Mohri, I., & Taniike, M. (2014) · JAPANESE JOURNAL OF RESEARCH ON EMOTIONS · doi:10.4092/jsre.22.128 · Cited by 5
Applicability of the Implicit Association Test (IAT) to Industrial Psychology for Society
知博, 小., & OKAMOTO, K. (2004) · SOCIOTECHNICA · doi:10.3392/sociotechnica.2.353 · Cited by 3
Moving Closer to Reach the Top: Approach Behavior Increases One's Sense of Power
Smith, P. K., McCulloch, K. C., & Schouwstra, A. (2013) · Social Cognition · doi:10.1521/soco_2012_1007 · Cited by 3
Implicit associations with social status: the effects of relationship involvement
Millar, M. (2009) · Evolution and Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2009.05.002 · Cited by 4
Impact of Advertising Intervention on Consumer’s Brand Attitude and Trust
Yuan, D., Si-Ming, L. U. O., Chun-Jiang, F. U., et al. (2010) · Acta Psychologica Sinica · doi:10.3724/sp.j.1041.2010.00715 · Cited by 3
El concepto de self y de otros en los delirios persecutorios
Espinosa, R., Valiente, C., & Bentall, R. P. (2014) · Clínica y Salud · doi:10.1016/j.clysa.2014.10.005 · Cited by 3
The Mechanism by Which Interpersonal Coping Flexibility Influences Self-Esteem
Gan, Y., & Liu, J. (2012) · The Psychological Record · doi:10.1007/bf03395832 · Cited by 4
Verification of the double dissociation model of shyness using the Implicit Association Test
Fujii, T., & Aikawa, A. (2013) · The Japanese journal of psychology · doi:10.4992/jjpsy.84.529 · Cited by 3
Implicit Association Test (IAT): Using Computer-Based Methods to Measure Consumer Implicit Attitudes
Maison, D. A. (2016) · Springer proceedings in business and economics · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-28419-4_8 · Cited by 3
The implicit sociometer effect and the moderating role of relational self‐construal
Jiang, T., Geng, L., Tang, Y., & Ye, L. (2016) · Scandinavian Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/sjop.12330 · Cited by 3
Testing the cognitive catalyst model of rumination with explicit and implicit cognitive content
Sova, C. C., & Roberts, J. E. (2018) · Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2018.01.002 · Cited by 4
Does Conventional Implicit Association Test of Shyness Measure “Self‐Shyness” or “Others‐Shyness”?
Sawaumi, T., Inagaki, T., & Aikawa, A. (2018) · Japanese psychological research (Print) · doi:10.1111/jpr.12238 · Cited by 1
Basic Needs, Goals and Motivation
Szalma, J. L. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.030 · Cited by 3
Measuring the Affective and Cognitive Bases of Implicit and Explicit Attitudes Towards Domestic and Foreign Food Brands
Urbane, B., Plotka, I., Blumenau, N., & Igonin, D. (2021) · Rural Environment. Education. Personality · doi:10.22616/reep.2021.14.024 · Cited by 3

Authors: Greenwald, A. G., & Farnham, S. D.
Affiliations: University of Washington (US)
ORCID: Greenwald, Anthony G.
Venue: Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 2000-12
Volume: 79
Issue: 6
Pages: 1022-1038
ISSN: 0022-3514 (ISSN-L)
1939-1315
DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.79.6.1022
OpenAlex: W4231600766
Cited by: 1,393
References: 0
Citations by year: 2026: 10 · 2025: 22 · 2024: 33 · 2023: 34 · 2022: 46 · 2021: 67 · 2020: 85 · 2019: 56 · 2018: 62 · 2017: 56 · 2016: 93 · 2015: 65 · 2014: 71 · 2013: 71 · 2012: 79
FWCI: 85.23
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders: National Institute of Mental Health (K05MH001533, R01MH041328, MH-57672, MH41328, MH01533, R01MH057672)
Topics: Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Psychological Testing and Assessment
Keywords: Implicit Association Test, self-esteem, self-concept, implicit attitudes
MeSH terms: Adult, Female, Humans, Internal-External Control, Male, Microcomputers, Personality Inventory, Psychometrics, Self Concept, Software, Word Association Tests, Reproducibility of Results

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review

Using the implicit association test to measure self-esteem and self-concept

Abstract

Overview

Integrity signals

Verification

Claims the paper makes

Claims other papers make about this one

Citations

Cited by

Related

Metadata

Record

About these checks