Using the implicit association test to measure self-esteem and self-concept

“However, the relation between implicit and explicit measures was small and nonsignificant (cf. Greenwald & Farnham, 2000).”

“Correlations of IAT measures with semantic priming measures of association strengths show that these two procedures converge as measures of strength of automatic associations (Cunningham, Preacher, & Banaji, 2001; Mellott, Cunningham, Rudman, Banaji, & Greenwald, 2001; Rudman & Kilianski, 2000).”

“…concerning different types of self-esteem (e.g., contingent vs. noncontingent, Crocker & Wolfe, 2001; Rogers, 1959; explicit vs. implicit, Greenwald & Farnham, 2000; Hetts & Pelham, 2001; authentic vs. false, Deci & Ryan, 1995; Horney, 1937; stable vs. unstable, Kernis & Waschull, 1995;…”

“Although such traits as insincerity and secure self-esteem are difficult to measure, considerable advances have been made into measuring these traits through implicit measures (Greenwald & Farnham, 2000).”

“Given the previous research using the IAT to measure self concept (cf. Greenwald & Farnham, 2000), we expected the correlations between explicit measures of environmental attitudes and the IAT to be small (rB0:20).”

“The correlation coefficient of RSES with implicit self-esteem measured by the Implicit Association Test (IAT; Greenwald, McGhee, & Schwartz, 1998) was 0.22 with Chinese samples (Cai, 2003), while the coefficient was 0.28 in American samples (Greenwald & Farnham, 2000).”

“Yet there is growing evidence to suggest that explicit and implicit measures can be positively and significantly correlated while remaining separate factors (Cunningham et al., 2001; Greenwald & Farnham, 2000 ).”

“Participants first completed the Self-Esteem Implicit Association Test (IAT; Greenwald & Farnham, 2000).”

“Because BESC is defined as a person’s tendency to incorporate his or her own favorite brands into the self-concept, we implemented an idiographic IAT (Greenwald and Farnham 2000), in which participants initially entered their five most and five least favorite brand names, which then served as brand stimuli in the IAT.”

“This lack of convergence between the explicit SCS measure and the implicit measures is consistent with other research that shows that implicit and explicit measures sometimes do not correlate (e.g., Bosson, Swann, & Pennebaker, 2000; Greenwald & Farnham, 2000).”

“For example, in Study 2 of their article, they show a strong correlation between the internalization dimension and an Implicit Association Test (Greenwald et al., 1998; Greenwald & Farnham, 2000) modified to include the moral traits used as salience induction stimuli in their instrument.”

“In contrast, divergence between implicit and explicit measures was observed in attitudes toward gender (Greenwald & Farnham, 2000) and race (Greenwald et al., 1998).”

“…of SE do tend to correlate with tendencies toward impression management, they correlate more strongly with tendencies toward self-deception (e.g., Greenwald & Farnham, 2001; Raskin et al., 1991) , which has been conceptualized by some as an indicator of defensiveness, particularly in light of…”

“This method assesses implicit self-esteem as measured by the Implicit Associations Test (also note that Kitayama & Karasawa, 1997, found that Japanese showed evidence for implicit self-enhancement in that they liked the characters in their names more than those characters not in their names and had preferences for num…”

“As pointed out by Greenwald and Farnham (2000), in”

“In the self domain, Greenwald and Farnham (2000) observed that women more easily associated themselves with traditional female stereotypes on the IAT than on explicit measures.”

“Besides identifying themselves as male or female, subjects rated the extent to which they viewed themselves as masculine and feminine on a 4-point scale (1 = “not at all”, 2 = “slightly”, 3 = “moderately”, 4 = “strongly”) and provided self-ratings on the same 4-point scale for six masculine traits (aggressive, confide…”

“Secondly, one can use momentary assessment techniques,(11) or, since exclusion from the majority group will often lead to low self-esteem, tests for the measurement of implicit selfesteem.(12) Thirdly, one can simulate SE or negative evaluation in a laboratory situation(13) although the short duration of exposure is a…”

“Researchers have distinguished between pronoun indicators of self, such as I and me, and of other, such as he/she and him/her (e.g., Greenwald & Farnham, 2000 ).”

“…discussion, see Gawronski et al., 2009). extent that most people’s implicit self-evaluation is highly positive (Bosson, Swann, & Pennebaker, 2000; Greenwald & Farnham, 2000; Koole et al., 2001), this process may lead to postdecisional enhancement of implicit evaluations of owned objects without…”

“…that sex differences in balanced gender identities might be revealed precisely because men possess robust implicit self-esteem and masculine identity (e.g., Greenwald et al., 2002; Greenwald & Farnham, 2000), but surprisingly weak in-group bias (Nosek & Banaji, 2002; Richeson & Ambady, 2001).”

“…the leverage of the MTMM design allowed for separating attitudes from the peculiarities of the instruments necessary to measure them, a limitation common to previous structural modeling research that involved only one domain per analysis (e.g., Cunningham et al., 2001; Greenwald & Farnham, 2000).”

“Prior research has used IAT and variations of it to measure self-concept (e.g., Greenwald & Farnham, 2000; Karpinski, 2004) as well as the strength of self and group association, referring to this pairing as a measure of automatic identity with the social group.”

“…of the self-concept are sometimes considered to reside outside of awareness (see Fazio & Olson, 2003; Petty, Wheeler, & Tormala, 2003) yet are highly accessible, such that they are automatically activated and can automatically influence responses (Devos & Banaji, 2003; Greenwald & Farnham, 2000).”

“Low observed correlations between implicit and explicit measures of self-esteem in monomethod studies have been misinterpreted as evidence that explicit and implicit measures of self-esteem measure distinct constructs (Greenwald & Farnham, 2000).”

“The self-esteem Implicit Association Test (IAT; Greenwald & Farnham, 2000 ) is a computerized categorization task that measures automatic associations of self-relevant and non-selfrelevant words with pleasant and unpleasant words.”

“An IAT measure assesses strength of gender identity through reaction times to differentiate self words (e.g., Bme^) from nonself words (e.g., Bother^) when each is paired with words indicative of communal (warm, tender) or agentic (competitive, aggressive) attributes (Greenwald and Farnham 2000).”

“The IAT is designed to create a relative measure of association strength (Greenwald & Farnham, 2000).”

“Ever since the early presentation of the IAT (Greenwald et al., 1998), researchers have claimed that IAT and self-report measures capture distinct but correlated constructs (Greenwald & Farnham, 2000).”

“I chose to use the selfesteem IAT, as developed by Greenwald and Farnham (2000).”

“…are explicitly reported (cf. Bosson, Swann, & Pennebaker, 2000; Cunningham, Preacher, & Banaji, 2001; Egloff, Schwerdtfeger, & Schmukle, 2005; Greenwald & Farnham, 2000; Nosek, Greenwald, & Banaji, in press; Schmukle & Egloff, 2004), often treating the IAT as a unitary category, like a…”

“Originally used to measure prejudice, it has recently been used to measure implicit self-concept (16) and dysfunctional cognitive schemata, especially in anxiety disorders (17).”

“Clearly, these measures cannot all be tapping into precisely the same construct, and it is therefore possible that the findings presented here would not replicate with a different measure of Implicit Self-esteem, such as the self-esteem Implicit Associations Test (Greenwald & Farnham, 2000).”

“In a similar vein, individual features of the presented exemplars have been shown to influence responses in the affective priming task (e.g., Livingston & Brewer, 2002), whereas the influence of such features is often overridden by the category applied to the presented exemplars in the IAT (e.g., De Houwer, 2001; Mitc…”

“Given that most people hold positive evaluations of themselves (Bosson, Swann, and Pennebaker 2000; Gawronski, Bodenhausen, and Becker 2007; Greenwald and Farnham 2000), the theory predicts that new links between the self and an object lead to more positive evaluations of the object.”

“…and retest reliabilities, which may explain why reliabilities of IAT measures are sometimes found to be high, whereas validity coefficients are poor (e.g., Bosson et al., 2000; Farnham, 1999; Greenwald & Farnham, 2000; Karpinski & Hilton, 2001; Ottaway et al., 2001; Rudman et al., 1999).”

“…indirect means, for example, by examining automatic associations between ‘‘self’’ and ‘‘good,’’ or by assessing evaluative responses to self-relevant objects (Greenwald & Farnham, 2000; Jones, Pelham, & Mirenberg, 2002; Kitayama & Karasawa, 1997; Koole, Dijksterhuis, & van Knippenberg, 2001).”

“…including political preferences (e.g., Albertson 2008; Olson and Fazio 2004), views toward racial and sexual orientation minorities (Lyle 2008; Jellison et al. 2004; Gawronski et al. 2003), consumer tastes (Maison et al. 2004), and personal reactions to failure (Greenwald and Farnham 2000).”

“In addition, having high implicit self-esteem seems to buVer people from negative consequences associated with doing poorly (Dijksterhuis, 2004; Greenwald & Farnham, 2000), self-concept threats (Jones et al., 2002; Spalding & Hardin, 1999), unrealistic optimism (Bosson et al., 2003), and negative…”

“Given that most people’s implicit self-evaluation is highly positive (Bosson, Swann, & Pennebaker, 2000; Greenwald & Farnham, 2000; Koole, Dijksterhuis, & Van Knippenberg, 2001), this process of associative selfanchoring may lead to post-decisional enhancement of implicit evaluations of chosen…”

“ISE was then assessed using the adapted version of the Implicit Associations Test (IAT; Greenwald & Farnham, 2000; Greenwald, McGhee, & Schwartz, 1998) that, in conjunction with ESE, has predicted defensiveness in other research (Jordan, Spencer, & Zanna, 2003; Jordan, Spencer, Zanna, et al., 2003).”

“In the implicit association test, for example, implicit attitudes are measured by comparing the time required to pair an object with the concept ‘good’ with the time required to pair an object with the concept ‘bad’ 72 .”

“The Humility–Arrogance IAT used in Studies 1 and 2 (see Table I) was patterned after existing validated measures of implicit self-esteem (Greenwald & Farnham, 2000) and implicit shyness (Asendorpf, Banse, & Mucke, 2002), and was grounded in the same theory as other established measures of implicit…”

“In several studies he found a reliable tendency for this conditioning procedure to elicit enhanced scores on both a name-letter liking measure (Nuttin, 1987) and the Implicit Association Test ( Greenwald & Farnham, 2000 ) of implicit self-esteem.”

“…the Go/No-Go Association Task (GNAT) (Nosek & Banaji, 2001) have been used to assess constructs thought to be heavily influenced by self-report biases, such as racial stereotypes, self-esteem, and psychopathology (see De Houwer, 2002; Greenwald & Farnham, 2000; Mitchell, Nosek, & Banaji, 2003).”

“In research on the Implicit Association Test (IAT; Greenwald & Farnham, 2000), for instance, it is taken for granted that the obtained measure reflects something about the persons being tested (e.g., their prejudiced attitudes or stereotypes) rather than something about the stimuli used for the…”

“We selected positive traits from the positive evaluative items that Greenwald and Farnham (2000) used to develop an Implicit Association Test of self-esteem.”

“Also studies of our own comparing different versions of German SE IATs found better reliability and validity of an IAT in which we used an ‘other’ category referring to other persons (Rudolph, Schröder-Abé, & Schütz, 2007).”

“As Greenwald and Farnham (2000) acknowledged, the original IAT can yield only relative strength measures.”

“…provide a more comprehensive portrait of people (in addition to those discussed in the preceding section, see also Adler, Wagner, & McAdams, 2007; Bornstein, 2011; Dawood & Pincus, 2016; Dunlop, 2015; Greenwald & Farnham, 2000; Hopwood et al., 2016; Leary, 1957; McAdams & Pals, 2006; Vazire, 2010).”

“For instance, tests of implicit self-esteem consistently reveal a seemingly ubiquitous generalized positive evaluation of self (Greenwald & Farnham, 2000; Yamaguchi et al., 2007).”

“Given that most people have a positive evaluation of themselves (e.g., Bosson, Swann, & Pennebaker, 2000; Greenwald & Farnham, 2000; Koole, Dijksterhuis, & Van Knippenberg, 2001), this positive evaluation may automatically transfer to any object that becomes associated with the self.”

“Explicit and implicit measures are related but distinct constructs [19].”

“Within-country correlations between ISE and ESE were near zero (.09 Greenwald & Farnham, 2000 ).”

“This is in line with earlier studies (Greenwald and Farnham, 2000; Gusnard and Raichle, 2001 ) where attention to self-related emotional conditions induced neural activity in PACC and VMPFC (and DMPFC) when compared to externally cued attention.”

“Not me as category labels in self – concept or self – esteem IATs, as an alternative to self vs. other (see Greenwald & Farnham, 2000) .”