Cited by 1,393Social and Intergroup PsychologyPersonality Traits and PsychologyPsychological Testing and Assessment

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Using the implicit association test to measure self-esteem and self-concept

Greenwald, Anthony G., Farnham, Shelly D.·2000·Journal of Personality and Social Psychology

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Abstract

Experiment 1 used the Implicit Association Test (IAT; A. G. Greenwald, D. E. McGhee, & J. L. K. Schwartz, 1998) to measure self-esteem by assessing automatic associations of self with positive or negative valence. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) showed that two IAT measures defined a factor that was distinct from, but weakly correlated with, a factor defined by standard explicit (self-report) measures of self-esteem. Experiment 2 tested known-groups validity of two IAT gender self-concept measures. Compared with well-established explicit measures, the IAT measures revealed triple the difference in measured masculinity-femininity between men and women. Again, CFA revealed construct divergence between implicit and explicit measures. Experiment 3 assessed the self-esteem IAT's validity in predicting cognitive reactions to success and failure. High implicit self-esteem was associated in the predicted fashion with buffering against adverse effects of failure on two of four measures.

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Background
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Method
Personality Neuroscience
DeYoung, C. G., & Blain, S. D. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.026 · Cited by 34
Changes in implicit and explicit self-esteem following cognitive and psychodynamic therapy in social anxiety disorder
Ritter, V., Leichsenring, F., Strauss, B. M., & Stangier, U. (2013) · Psychotherapy Research · doi:10.1080/10503307.2013.802824 · Cited by 27
“An Implicit Association Test (IAT; Greenwald et al., 1998; Greenwald & Farnham, 2000) was administered to measure the relative strengths of automatic positive and negative associations of a person towards the self and others.”
Background
The Implicit Relational Assessment Procedure As a Measure of Self-Esteem
Timko, C. A., England, E. L., Herbert, J. D., & Forman, E. M. (2010) · The Psychological Record · doi:10.1007/bf03395739 · Cited by 26
“Participants completed a feeling thermometer (adapted from Greenwald & Farnham, 2000, and described previously) for each of the six words (stupid, smart, ugly, attractive, shy, friendly) used on the IRAP. procedure Participants presented to the research laboratory individually.”
Method
When I Becomes We
Roth, J., & Steffens, M. (2014) · Social Psychology · doi:10.1027/1864-9335/a000169 · Cited by 21
An Application of the LC-LSTM Framework to the Self-esteem Instability Case
Alessandri, G., Vecchione, M., Donnellan, B. M., & Tisak, J. (2013) · Psychometrika · doi:10.1007/s11336-013-9326-4 · Cited by 26
“Implicit Self-esteem The Implicit Association Test (IAT; Greenwald & Farnham, 2000; Greenwald, McGhee, & Schwartz, 1998), implemented online through Inquisit computer program (Millisecond Software, 2000) was used to assess implicit self-esteem.”
BackgroundMethod
Chinese Undergraduates’ Explicit and Implicit Attitudes Toward Persons With Disabilities
Chen, S., Ma, L., & Zhang, J. (2011) · Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0034355211410705 · Cited by 25
“It has been used to study attitudes toward race, self-concept, and other constructs (Greenwald & Farnham, 2000; Greenwald et al., 1998; McConnell & Leibold, 2001; Rudman, Greenwald, Mellott, & Schwartz, 1999).”
Method
Explicit self-esteem mediates the relationship between implicit self-esteem and memory biases in major depression
Romero, N., Sánchez-López, Á., Vázquez, C., & Valiente, C. (2016) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2016.06.003 · Cited by 31
“In contrast, other studies using different approaches, such as the Implicit Association Test (IAT, Greenwald and Farnham, 2000) and the Go/No-go Association Task (GNAT; Nosek and Banaji, 2001) have found mixed support for the presence of low implicit selfesteem in depressed compared to…”
Result
The effect of social exclusion on state paranoia and explicit and implicit self-esteem in a non-clinical sample
Stewart, C., Rogers, F., Pilch, M., Stewart, I., Barnes‐Holmes, Y., & Westermann, S. (2017) · Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2017.04.001 · Cited by 34
Implicit and Explicit Self-Esteem: Measure for Measure
Oakes, M. A., Brown, J. D., & Cai, H. (2008) · Social Cognition · doi:10.1521/soco.2008.26.6.778 · Cited by 26
Faculty narcissism and student outcomes in business higher education: A student-faculty fit analysis
Westerman, J. W., Whitaker, B. G., Bergman, J. Z., Bergman, S. M., & Daly, J. P. (2016) · The International Journal of Management Education · doi:10.1016/j.ijme.2016.02.001 · Cited by 24
Descriptive, predictive and explanatory personality research: Different goals, different approaches, but a shared need to move beyond the Big Few traitsPreprint
Mõttus, R., Wood, D., Condon, D. M., Back, M. D., Baumert, A., Costantini, G., Epskamp, S., Greiff, S., Johnson, W., Lukaszewski, A. W., et al. (2020) · PsyArXiv (OSF Preprints) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/hvk5p · Cited by 28
Evaluating the temporal structure and correlates of daily self-esteem using a trait state error framework (TSE)
Alessandri, G., Zuffianò, A., Vecchione, M., Donnellan, B. M., & Tisak, J. (2016) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/15298868.2015.1137223 · Cited by 24
“The Implicit Association Test (IAT; Greenwald & farnham, 2000; Greenwald, McGhee, & Schwartz, 1998), implemented online through Inquisit computer program (Millisecond Software, 2000) was used to assess implicit self-esteem.”
Method
Implicit and explicit attitudes in transportation research: A literature review
Tosi, J. D., Haworth, N. L., Díaz‐Lázaro, C. M., Poó, F. M., & Ledesma, R. D. (2021) · Transportation Research Part F Traffic Psychology and Behaviour · doi:10.1016/j.trf.2020.12.014 · Cited by 27
Self‐Worth and Politics: The Distinctive Roles of Self‐Esteem and Narcissism
Cichocka, A. K., Marchlewska, M., & Cisłak, A. (2023) · Political Psychology · doi:10.1111/pops.12897 · Cited by 35
Mood and Trust in Intuition Interactively Orchestrate Correspondence Between Implicit and Explicit Attitudes
Huntsinger, J. R. (2011) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167211410069 · Cited by 25
“Consistent with past research (Greenwald & Farnham, 2000; Jordan et al., 2007), implicit and explicit self-esteem were uncorrelated, r(113) = .03, p = .74.”
MethodResult
Development and Initial Validation of an Implicit Measure of Religiousness-Spirituality
LaBouff, J. P., Rowatt, W. C., Johnson, M. K., Thedford, M., & Tsang, J.-A. C. (2010) · Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion · doi:10.1111/j.1468-5906.2010.01521.x · Cited by 29
The Mirror of Mind: Visualizing Mental Representations of Self Through Reverse Correlation
Moon, K., Kim, S., Kim, J., Kim, H., & Ko, Y.-G. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01149 · Cited by 25
Base rate effects on the IAT.
Bluemke, M., & Fiedler, K. (2009) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2009.07.010 · Cited by 26
The Experimental Investigation of Religious CognitionPreprint
Gibson, N. J. S. (2018) · doi:10.31237/osf.io/mxwfc · Cited by 25
The social‐cognitive clinician: On the implications of social cognitive theory for psychotherapy and assessment
Scott, W. D., Cervone, D., & Ebiringah, O. U. (2024) · International Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1002/ijop.13125 · Cited by 28
Responsive Low Self-Esteem: Low Explicit Self-Esteem, Implicit Self-Esteem, and Reactions to Performance Outcomes
Jordan, C. H., Logel, C. R., Spencer, S. J., Zanna, M. P., Wood, J. V., & Holmes, J. G. (2013) · Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1521/jscp.2013.32.7.703 · Cited by 25
Wounds that Can’t Be Seen: Implicit Trauma Associations Predict Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Symptoms
Lindgren, K. P., Kaysen, D., Werntz, A., Gasser, M. L., & Teachman, B. (2013) · Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2013.03.003 · Cited by 21
“Stimuli were derived from other self-appraisal or self-concept IATs (e.g., Devos, 2006; Greenwald & Farnham, 2000; Lindgren et al., 2012), clinical examples from twostudy co-authors (Kaysen & Lindgren), and self-report measures of PSTD-related cognitions.”
Method
“Worse but Ours,” or “Better but Theirs?” – The Role of Implicit Consumer Ethnocentrism (ICE) in Product Preference
Maison, D. A., & Maliszewski, N. (2016) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01830 · Cited by 24
“…a racial implicit attitude (Greenwald et al., 1998; Dasgupta and Greenwald, 2001; Greenwald and Nosek, 2001), self-concept (Farnham et al., 1999; Greenwald and Farnham, 2000; Greenwald et al., 2002), self-esteem (Farnham et al., 1999; Greenwald et al., 2002), gender stereotypes (e.g., Rudman et…”
Background
Implicit and Explicit Self-Esteem in Current, Remitted, Recovered, and Comorbid Depression and Anxiety Disorders: The NESDA Study
van Tuijl, L. A., Glashouwer, K. A., Bockting, C., Tendeiro, J. N., Penninx, B. W. J. H., & de Jong, P. J. (2016) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0166116 · Cited by 30
Self-Concept of Gifted Children Aged 9 to 13 Years Old
Shi, J., Li, Y., & Zhang, X. (2008) · journal for the education of the gifted · doi:10.4219/jeg-2008-791 · Cited by 24
“The discrepancy between the results of our findings and other studies (Zeidner & Schleyer, 1998; Greenwald & Farnham, 2000) might be attributed to social conditions, especially child-rearing styles, on child development.”
MethodResult

Authors: Greenwald, A. G., & Farnham, S. D.
Affiliations: University of Washington (US)
ORCID: Greenwald, Anthony G.
Venue: Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 2000-12
Volume: 79
Issue: 6
Pages: 1022-1038
ISSN: 0022-3514 (ISSN-L)
1939-1315
DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.79.6.1022
OpenAlex: W4231600766
Cited by: 1,393
References: 0
Citations by year: 2026: 10 · 2025: 22 · 2024: 33 · 2023: 34 · 2022: 46 · 2021: 67 · 2020: 85 · 2019: 56 · 2018: 62 · 2017: 56 · 2016: 93 · 2015: 65 · 2014: 71 · 2013: 71 · 2012: 79
FWCI: 85.23
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders: National Institute of Mental Health (K05MH001533, R01MH041328, MH-57672, MH41328, MH01533, R01MH057672)
Topics: Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Psychological Testing and Assessment
Keywords: Implicit Association Test, self-esteem, self-concept, implicit attitudes
MeSH terms: Adult, Female, Humans, Internal-External Control, Male, Microcomputers, Personality Inventory, Psychometrics, Self Concept, Software, Word Association Tests, Reproducibility of Results

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Using the implicit association test to measure self-esteem and self-concept

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