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Using the implicit association test to measure self-esteem and self-concept
Abstract
Experiment 1 used the Implicit Association Test (IAT; A. G. Greenwald, D. E. McGhee, & J. L. K. Schwartz, 1998) to measure self-esteem by assessing automatic associations of self with positive or negative valence. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) showed that two IAT measures defined a factor that was distinct from, but weakly correlated with, a factor defined by standard explicit (self-report) measures of self-esteem. Experiment 2 tested known-groups validity of two IAT gender self-concept measures. Compared with well-established explicit measures, the IAT measures revealed triple the difference in measured masculinity-femininity between men and women. Again, CFA revealed construct divergence between implicit and explicit measures. Experiment 3 assessed the self-esteem IAT's validity in predicting cognitive reactions to success and failure. High implicit self-esteem was associated in the predicted fashion with buffering against adverse effects of failure on two of four measures.
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“Similar tendencies have been demonstrated previously, wherein adults displayed faster response times when associating the self with positive attributes (34).”
From Development of self-protective biases in response to social evaluative feedback (2017) · cites this paper as [34]
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“According to Greenwald and Farnham [106], divergences between implicit and explicit measures might occur when self-reports are inaccurate due to response biases, whereas implicit measures are assumed to be less affected or even unaffected by such biases.”
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BackgroundSibley, C. G., & Harré, N. (2008) · Transportation Research Part F Traffic Psychology and Behaviour · doi:10.1016/j.trf.2008.11.001 · Cited by 58
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Moderators of the Relationship between Implicit and Explicit EvaluationPreprint
Nosek, B. A. (2016) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/9dk2u · Cited by 62
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Self-citationAssessing Positive Orientation With the Implicit Association Test
Costantini, G., Perugini, M., Dentale, F., Barbaranelli, C., Alessandri, G., Vecchione, M., & Caprara, G. V. (2016) · European Journal of Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1027/1015-5759/a000362 · Cited by 55
“Implicit self-esteem was assessed using a standard Self-Esteem IAT (α = .76; Greenwald & Farnham, 2000).”
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Martin, B. A. S., Lee, M., & Lacey, C. (2011) · Journal of Consumer Behaviour · doi:10.1002/cb.351 · Cited by 55
Kämpfe, N., Penzhorn, J., Schikora, J., Dünzl, J., & Schneidenbach, J. (2009) · Psychology Crime and Law · doi:10.1080/10683160802010640 · Cited by 54
“Just to give a few examples, the IAT has been applied for assessing the Big Five (Steffens & Schulze-Konig, 2006 ), self-concept (Greenwald & Farnham, 2000 ), self-esteem (e.”
MethodMichalak, J., Teismann, T., Heidenreich, T., Ströhle, G., & Vocks, S. (2010) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2010.11.029 · Cited by 76
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Hein, S. D., Grumm, M., & Fingerle, M. (2011) · European Journal of Special Needs Education · doi:10.1080/08856257.2011.597192 · Cited by 55
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Cha, C. B., Augenstein, T. M., Frost, K., Gallagher, K., D'Angelo, E., & Nock, M. (2016) · Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2015.10.008 · Cited by 49
Elvers, P., Fischinger, T., & Steffens, J. (2017) · Psychology of Music · doi:10.1177/0305735617707354 · Cited by 69
“The Implicit Association Test (IAT; Greenwald et al., 1998) was used to measure implicit self-esteem as described by Greenwald and Farnham (2000).”
MethodThe universal and automatic association between brightness and positivity
Specker, E., Leder, H., Rosenberg, R., Hegelmaier, L. M., Brinkmann, H., Mikuni, J., & Kawabata, H. (2018) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2018.04.007 · Cited by 53
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“The degree to which ‘‘me-positive’’ and ‘‘not-menegative’’ are stronger associations than ‘‘me-negative’’ and ‘‘notme-positive’’ indicates more implicit self-esteem (see Table 1 for an overview of the IAT task).”
MethodInfluentialPolicy Implications of Implicit Social Cognition
Nosek, B. A., & Riskind, R. G. (2012) · Social Issues and Policy Review · doi:10.1111/j.1751-2409.2011.01037.x · Cited by 55
“(Claim 6) Implicit social cognition is distinct, but related to self-reported evaluation of the same content (Cunningham, Preacher, & Banaji, 2001; Greenwald & Farnham, 2000; Nosek & Smyth, 2007; Payne, Burkley, & Stokes, 2008).”
BackgroundUnraveling the three faces of self-esteem: A new information-processing sociometer perspective
Back, M. D., Krause, S., Hirschmüller, S., Stopfer, J. M., Egloff, B., & Schmukle, S. C. (2009) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2009.04.002 · Cited by 52
A smart unconscious? Procedural origins of automatic partner attitudes in marriage
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Buhlmann, U., Teachman, B. A., Gerbershagen, A., Kikul, J., & Rief, W. (2007) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-006-9095-9 · Cited by 51
“For the self-esteem task, there is an established precedent of comparing attitudes toward the self with attitudes toward others (e.g., de Jong, 2002; Greenwald & Farnham, 2000).”
BackgroundDefensive self-esteem impacts attention, attitude strength, and self-affirmation processes
Haddock, G., & Gebauer, J. E. (2011) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2011.05.020 · Cited by 56
Evidence for implicit self-positivity bias: an event-related brain potential study
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“…that there is no significant correlation between explicit and implicit attitudes, and infer that they may take on different meanings on some psychological levels and relate to different neural network systems (Bosson et al. 2000, 2003; Epstein 1994; Greenwald and Farnham 2000; Wilson et al. 2000).”
BackgroundThe Thinner the Better: Self‐Esteem and Low Body Weight in Anorexia Nervosa
Brockmeyer, T., Holtforth, M. G., Bents, H., Kämmerer, A., Herzog, W., & Friederich, H. (2012) · Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy · doi:10.1002/cpp.1771 · Cited by 56
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The mask of zeal: Low implicit self-esteem, threat, and defensive extremism
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Kruijt, A.-W., Antypa, N., Booij, L., de Jong, P. J., Glashouwer, K., Penninx, B. W. J. H., & Van der Does, W. (2013) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0070245 · Cited by 49
“Were measured using the Implicit Association Test (IAT) [25,43].”
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“Moreover, studies show that people make automatic and unconscious cognitive judgments based on their prior experiences (Greenwald and Farnham, 2000; Bargh et al., 2001; Dedeke, 2015).”
BackgroundUsing the self to change implicit attitudes
Prestwich, A., Perugini, M., Hurling, R., & Richetin, J. (2009) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.610 · Cited by 50
Unconstraining theories of embodied cognition
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“The positive bias of the own name thus appears to reflect the fact that most people have quite a favourable view of themselves (e.g., Greenwald & Farnham, 2000; Koole et al., 2001).”
BackgroundLeavitt, K., Fong, C. T., & Greenwald, A. G. (2011) · Journal of Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1002/job.746 · Cited by 49
“…it has been demonstrated robust to attempts at faking (Asendorpf, Banse, & Mucke, 2002; Steffens, 2004), shows acceptable internal consistency (Greenwald & Farnham, 2000), test–retest reliability (Nosek, Greenwald & Banaji, 2007), and predicts behavioral outcomes across multiple domains of…”
BackgroundSelf-citationFarrell, L., & McHugh, L. (2017) · Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science · doi:10.1016/j.jcbs.2017.02.001 · Cited by 50
A gender role socialization model of explicit and implicit biases in driving self-enhancement
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Effects of Threat to a Valued Social Identity on Implicit Self-Esteem and Discrimination
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“Research has also shown that individuals with high implicit self-esteem scores are less sensitive to feedback that they failed at a task (Greenwald & Farnham, 2000) and they are also more likely to persist in the face of failure than individuals with low implicit self-esteem ( Jordan, Spencer, &…”
BackgroundMota, S., Humberg, S., Krause, S., Fatfouta, R., Geukes, K., Schröder–Abé, M., & Back, M. D. (2019) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/15298868.2019.1620012 · Cited by 54
“Implicit self-esteem was measured with the Implicit Association Test (IAT; Greenwald & Farnham, 2000; split halfmean: .78), the Name Liking Measure (NLM; Gebauer et al., 2008), the Name Letter Task (NLT; Koole et al., 2001; split halfmean: .64), two variants of the Affective Priming Task (Reaction…”
BackgroundMethodImplicit Measurement of Attitudes, Stereotypes, and Self-Concepts in Organizations
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Testing mood-activated psychological markers for suicidal ideation
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The Role of Stigma in Understanding Ethnicity Differences in Authoritarianism
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“Conversely, self-esteem involves people's own perception of their personal worth and efficacy, and how generally positive they feel toward themselves as reflected by explicit (Rosenberg, 1965) and implicit (Greenwald & Farnham, 2000) measures.”
BackgroundHeine, S. J. (2010) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9780470561119.socpsy002037 · Cited by 48
Eaton, J., Struthers, C., Shomrony, A., & Santelli, A. G. (2007) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/15298860601118819 · Cited by 50
“…with the self, such as the initials in their name (name letter effect; Kitiyama & Karasawa, 1997), and also by the Implicit Association Test (IAT; Greenwald & Farnham, 2000), which uses reaction times to assess how quickly individuals associate positive and negative concepts with themselves.”
BackgroundMethodAttitudinal and Non-Attitudinal Components of IAT Performance
Calanchini, J., Sherman, J. W., Klauer, K. C., & Lai, C. K. (2014) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167214540723 · Cited by 45
Are Implicit Self‐Esteem Measures Valid for Assessing Individual and Cultural Differences?
Falk, C. F., Heine, S. J., Takemura, K. N., Zhang, C. X. J., & Hsu, C. (2013) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/jopy.12082 · Cited by 53
“The self-esteem version of the IAT (Greenwald & Farnham, 2000) is a categorization task that requires words from two pairs of categories.”
MethodWhy Reject Creative Ideas? Fear as a Driver of Implicit Bias Against Creativity
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“The items of Greenwald and Farnham (2000) were utilized for the good and bad categories: the good category contained joy, lovely, pleasant, glorious, beautiful, and happy; the bad category included agony, terrible, awful, painful, humiliated, and nasty.”
MethodPeters, K. R., & Gawronski, B. (2010) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2010.11.015 · Cited by 44
“A meta-analysis of correlations between self-report measures and the Implicit Association Test (IAT; Greenwald, McGhee, & Schwartz, 1998) also found that these assessments of the explicit and implicit self-concepts correlated at .21, more strongly than assessments of self-esteem and roughly equal to the overall correl…”
MethodNarcissistic Traits and Explicit Self-Esteem: The Moderating Role of Implicit Self-View
Pierro, R. D., Mattavelli, S., & Gallucci, M. (2016) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01815 · Cited by 48
“%) in the Selfesteem Implicit Association Test (Self-Esteem IAT; Greenwald and Farnham, 2000) one participant was excluded from the analyses.”
InfluentialSukhera, J. I., Wodzinski, M., Milne, A., Teunissen, P. W., Lingard, L., & Watling, C. (2019) · Academic Medicine · doi:10.1097/acm.0000000000002782 · Cited by 44
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Comparing IAT and TAT measures of power versus intimacy motivation
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“…have been assessed regarding a host of bipolar attitude dimensions, including mathematics versus the arts (Blanton, Jaccard, Gonzales, & Christie, 2006), self versus others (Greenwald & Farnham, 2000), men versus women (Haines & Kray, 2005) and East versus West Germans (Bluemke & Friese, 2006).”
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Rebar, A. L., Ram, N., & Conroy, D. E. (2014) · Psychology of sport and exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2014.09.008 · Cited by 40
Rüsch, N., Corrigan, P. W., Bohus, M., Kühler, T., Jacob, G. A., & Lieb, K. (2007) · The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease · doi:10.1097/nmd.0b013e318064e7fc · Cited by 42
“The Implicit Association Test (IAT) is a measure of automatic or implicit attitudes that can be used to measure implicit self-concept (Greenwald and Farnham, 2000) and dysfunctional cognitive schemata especially in anxiety disorders (Teachman et al., 2001).”
BackgroundKnobloch‐Westerwick, S., & Hoplamazian, G. J. (2011) · Communication Research · doi:10.1177/0093650211425040 · Cited by 44
“Even implicit measures of gender (e.g., Greenwald & Farnham, 2000) utilize clearly gendered terms (man, boy, woman, girl) that would have rendered the research topic salient.”
BackgroundGrumm, M., Hein, S. D., & Fingerle, M. (2011) · International Journal of Behavioral Development · doi:10.1177/0165025411405955 · Cited by 42
“Participants were instructed to select six items that were not self-identifying (e.g., ‘‘other’’ first name, ‘‘other’’ family name, ‘‘other’’ gender; for a similar procedure see Greenwald & Farnham, 2000).”
Self and team prioritisation effects in perceptual matching: Evidence for a shared representation.
Enock, F. E., Sui, J., Hewstone, M., & Humphreys, G. (2018) · Acta Psychologica · doi:10.1016/j.actpsy.2017.11.011 · Cited by 39
“The second experiment also assessed the effects of explicitly reported group identification and further used implicit association measures (Greenwald & Farnham, 2000) to investigate whether the enhanced performance for the team in the matching task reflected implicit positive valence associated…”
MethodComparing Implicit and Explicit Attitudes Toward Intimate Partner Violence Against Women
Pérez, V. A. F., Fiol, E. B., Ferreiro-Basurto, V., Álvarez, C. D., & Sánchez-Prada, A. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.02147 · Cited by 42
“Additionally, its correlation with the feeling thermometer items (Greenwald and Farnham, 2000) and with an independent variable influence on the IAT (Nosek et al.”
BackgroundInfluentialUnravelling the intellectual discourse of implicit consumer cognition: A bibliometric review
Wörfel, P. (2019) · Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services · doi:10.1016/j.jretconser.2019.101960 · Cited by 42
The exploration of implicit aspects of self-esteem in vulnerability – stress models of depression
Steinberg, J. A., Karpinski, A., & Alloy, L. B. (2007) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/15298860601118884 · Cited by 41
“The most widely used measure of implicit self-esteem is the self – other Implicit Association Test (self – other IAT; Greenwald & Farnham, 2000 ).”
MethodInfluentialSchnabel, K., Asendorpf, J. B., & Greenwald, A. G. (2008) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1002/per.697 · Cited by 41
“In their first publication on the IAT, Greenwald et al. (1998) suggested its possible use to assess strengths of associations with attributes other than valence.”
Self-citationCounting Every Thought: Implicit Measures of Cognitive Responses to Advertising
Huang, Y., & Hutchinson, J. W. (2008) · Journal of Consumer Research · doi:10.1086/527340 · Cited by 41
Implicit Measures and Media Effects Research: Challenges and Opportunities
Hefner, D., Rothmund, T., Klimmt, C., & Gollwitzer, M. (2011) · Communication Methods and Measures · doi:10.1080/19312458.2011.597006 · Cited by 42
“Another example is the use of the self-esteem IAT (Greenwald & Farnham, 2000) to measure cognitive effects of performance in video games (Klimmt, Hefner, Vorderer, & Roth, 2008): Prior and subsequent to playing an easy versus challenging video game, participants performed the self-esteem IAT, which…”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialConfabulation, delusion, and anosognosia: Motivational factors and false claims
McKay, R., & Kinsbourne, M. (2009) · Cognitive Neuropsychiatry · doi:10.1080/13546800903374871 · Cited by 40
“The particular categories described here feature in an IAT for implicit self-esteem, and were first investigated by Greenwald and Farnham (2000).”
BackgroundSelf‐power associations: the possession of power impacts women's self‐concepts
Haines, E. L., & Kray, L. J. (2005) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.252 · Cited by 44
“The me and not-me items were derived from Greenwald and Farnham (2000) (e.g. first name, last name, occupation, ethnicity, me, mine, I).”
BackgroundMethodManipulating self‐esteem with subliminally presented words
Riketta, M., & Dauenheimer, D. (2003) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.179 · Cited by 40
Math = Male, Me = Female, therefore Math = MePreprint
Nosek, B. A., Banaji, M. R., & Greenwald, A. G. (2016) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/y2g6s · Cited by 40
Self-citationSui, J., Chechlacz, M., & Humphreys, G. W. (2011) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2011.10.008 · Cited by 39
Effects of a virtual gender swap on social and temporal decision-making
Bolt, E., Ho, J. T., Lesur, M. R., Soutschek, A., Tobler, P. N., & Lenggenhager, B. (2021) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-021-94869-z · Cited by 40
Implicit and explicit self-esteem: What are we measuring?
Tafarodi, R. W., & Ho, C. (2006) · Canadian Psychology/Psychologie canadienne · doi:10.1037/cp2006009 · Cited by 39
“Elsewhere, implicit measurement of self-esteem is claimed to “define constructs that are distinct from, although correlated with, nominally the same constructs measured by self-report” (Greenwald & Farnham, 2000, p. 1034).”
BackgroundMethodPersonality Dynamics: Insights From the Personality Social Cognitive Literature
Robinson, M. D., & Gordon, K. H. (2011) · Journal of Personality Assessment · doi:10.1080/00223891.2010.542534 · Cited by 40
“In this Implicit Association Test (IAT; Greenwald & Farnham, 2000), higher levels of implicit self-esteem are revealed to the extent that it is easier for the individual to categorize self + pleasant words when the same response is required relative to another condition in which self + unpleasant words are to be categ…”
BackgroundInfluentialIn the Presence of Social Threat: Implicit and Explicit Self-Esteem in Social Anxiety Disorder
Ritter, V., Ertel, C., Beil, K., Steffens, M., & Stangier, U. (2013) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-013-9553-0 · Cited by 38
“The self-esteem implicit association test (IAT; Greenwald and Farnham 2000) is a computerized reaction-time task to measure the relative strength of automatic positive and negative associations towards the self and others.”
MethodSelf-evaluations in social anxiety: The combined role of explicit and implicit social-rank
Berger, U., Keshet, H., & Gilboa‐Schechtman, E. (2016) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2016.08.023 · Cited by 38
Implicit and explicit assessment of materialism: Associations with happiness and depression
Velázquez, J. A. M., Gómez‐Baya, D., & de Prado, M. L. C. (2017) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2017.04.033 · Cited by 38
On the context dependency of implicit self-esteem in social anxiety disorder
Hiller, T. S., Steffens, M. C., Ritter, V., & Stangier, U. (2017) · Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2017.05.005 · Cited by 40
Lower implicit self-esteem as a pathway linking childhood abuse to depression and suicidal ideation
Reid-Russell, A., Miller, A. B., Dario Cvencek, A., Meltzoff, A. N., & McLaughlin, K. A. (2021) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579420002217 · Cited by 38
“Fourth, prior research with adults has shown that explicit and implicit self-esteem are not always congruent, suggesting that they reflect at least somewhat distinct constructs (e.g., Bosson, Brown, Zeigler-Hill, & Swann, 2003; Greenwald & Farnham, 2000).”
BackgroundDo Automatic Self-Associations Relate to Suicidal Ideation?
Glashouwer, K. A., de Jong, P. J., Penninx, B. W. J. H., Kerkhof, A. J. F. M., van Dyck, R., & Ormel, J. (2009) · Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment · doi:10.1007/s10862-009-9156-y · Cited by 42
“We used two adapted versions of the Implicit Association Test (IAT; Greenwald et al. 1998) to assess automatic self-depressive associations and automatic self-anxious associations.”
MethodMere acceptance produces apparent attitude in the Implicit Association Test
Mitchell, C. J. (2003) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2003.07.003 · Cited by 38
“All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2003.07.003 (Brunel, Collins, Greenwald, & Tietje, 1999) and self esteem (Greenwald & Farnham, 2000).”
InfluentialNorasakkunkit, V., & Kalick, S. M. (2007) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-007-9082-1 · Cited by 38
Zeigler‐Hill, V., Clark, C. B., & Beckman, T. (2010) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/15298868.2010.497376 · Cited by 37
“We also administered the self-esteem version of the Implicit Association Test (IAT; Greenwald & Farnham, 2000) in Study 2.”
MethodJohnston, C., Belschner, L., Park, J. L., Stewart, K., Noyes, A., & Schaller, M. (2017) · Parenting · doi:10.1080/15295192.2016.1184954 · Cited by 42
“Although this structure of the IATmakes scores dependent on the nature of the comparative stimuli (in this case, the faces of the unknown children) (Greenwald & Farnham, 2000), it also offers a potentially advantageous control for the overall positivity bias that adults may show toward all children.”
BackgroundImplicit attitudes: meaning, measurement, and synergy with political science
Pérez, E. O. (2013) · Politics Groups and Identities · doi:10.1080/21565503.2013.785958 · Cited by 37
“Greenwald et al.’s (2009) meta-analysis convincingly shows that the association between IAT scores and explicit judgments and behaviors is independent of the influence of explicit attitudes.”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Greenwald, A. G., & Farnham, S. D.
- Affiliations
- University of Washington (US)
- Venue
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
- Published
- 2000-12
- Volume
- 79
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 1022-1038
- ISSN
- 0022-3514 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1315
- OpenAlex
- W4231600766
- Cited by
- 1,393
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 10 · 2025: 22 · 2024: 33 · 2023: 34 · 2022: 46 · 2021: 67 · 2020: 85 · 2019: 56 · 2018: 62 · 2017: 56 · 2016: 93 · 2015: 65 · 2014: 71 · 2013: 71 · 2012: 79
- FWCI
- 85.23
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health (K05MH001533, R01MH041328, MH-57672, MH41328, MH01533, R01MH057672)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Psychological Testing and Assessment
- Keywords
- Implicit Association Test, self-esteem, self-concept, implicit attitudes
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Female, Humans, Internal-External Control, Male, Microcomputers, Personality Inventory, Psychometrics, Self Concept, Software, Word Association Tests, Reproducibility of Results
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