The DOI matches its Crossref record.
Using the implicit association test to measure self-esteem and self-concept
Abstract
Experiment 1 used the Implicit Association Test (IAT; A. G. Greenwald, D. E. McGhee, & J. L. K. Schwartz, 1998) to measure self-esteem by assessing automatic associations of self with positive or negative valence. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) showed that two IAT measures defined a factor that was distinct from, but weakly correlated with, a factor defined by standard explicit (self-report) measures of self-esteem. Experiment 2 tested known-groups validity of two IAT gender self-concept measures. Compared with well-established explicit measures, the IAT measures revealed triple the difference in measured masculinity-femininity between men and women. Again, CFA revealed construct divergence between implicit and explicit measures. Experiment 3 assessed the self-esteem IAT's validity in predicting cognitive reactions to success and failure. High implicit self-esteem was associated in the predicted fashion with buffering against adverse effects of failure on two of four measures.
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“Similar tendencies have been demonstrated previously, wherein adults displayed faster response times when associating the self with positive attributes (34).”
From Development of self-protective biases in response to social evaluative feedback (2017) · cites this paper as [34]
Citations
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 601–700 of 1,014
Sexual or Friendly? Associations About Women, Men, and Self
Lindgren, K. P., Shoda, Y., & George, W. H. (2007) · Psychology of Women Quarterly · doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.2007.00352.x · Cited by 16
“For example, IATs have been used to document that most people (a) have automatic stereotypic associations about men’s and women’s domestic and professional abilities ( Greenwald & Farnham, 2000; Nosek, Banaji, & Greenwald, 2002) and (b) have automatic negative associations for Black versus White faces and names (Green…”
MethodInfluentialPeterson, J. L., & DeHart, T. (2012) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2012.07.013 · Cited by 17
“While some researchers suggest implicit self-evaluations are nonconscious (e.g. Greenwald & Farnham, 2000; Pelham & Hetts, 1999), recent work argues that these evaluations can sometimes be consciously experienced (e.g., Jordan, Whit fi eld, & Zeigler-Hill, 2007; Koole, Govorun, Chang, & Gallucci,…”
Online Evaluative Conditioning Did Not Alter Internalized Homonegativity or Self-Esteem in Gay Men
Fleming, J. B., & Burns, M. N. (2016) · Journal of Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1002/jclp.22388 · Cited by 18
“…= evaluative conditioning; SE = self-esteem; SO = sexual orientation; EC = evaluative conditioning; SE IAT = Self-Esteem Implicit Association Test (Greenwald & Farnham, 2000); SSES = State SelfEsteem Scale (Heatherton & Polivy, 1991); SO IAT = Sexual Orientation Implicit Association Test (Nosek…”
BackgroundInfluentialMeagher, B. R. (2017) · British Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjso.12198 · Cited by 20
Implicit mechanisms of body image alterations: The covert attention exposure effect
Salvato, G., Romano, D., Maio, G. D., & Bottini, G. (2019) · Attention Perception & Psychophysics · doi:10.3758/s13414-019-01921-2 · Cited by 15
Ünüvar, Ş., Avşaroğlu, S., & Uslu, M. (2012) · Asian Social Science · doi:10.5539/ass.v8n12p140 · Cited by 15
“In this sense, optimism is both an emotion (Baumeister, Campbell, Krueger and Vohs, 2003) and a feature, which can also be developed by learning processes (Greenwald and Farnham, 2000).”
BackgroundPavlickova, H., Turnbull, O. H., & Bentall, R. P. (2013) · Psychology and Psychotherapy Theory Research and Practice · doi:10.1111/papt.12015 · Cited by 15
“We employed a modified version of the IAT created by Greenwald and Farnham (2000), with good validity and test-retest reliability (Bosson et al., 2000).”
Stieger, S., Kandler, C., Tran, U. S., Pietschnig, J., & Voracek, M. (2017) · Behavior Genetics · doi:10.1007/s10519-016-9829-8 · Cited by 22
“The hierarchy hypothesis assumes that implicit selfesteem and affect should more accurately reflect the core than should explicit self-esteem and affect because other effects can influence explicit evaluations and attitudes (regarding self-esteem, e.g., impression management, selfdeception; Greenwald and Farnham 2000;…”
BackgroundImpact of ESL Learners’ Self-Esteem on Their Oral Proficiency
Mandokhail, S., Khan, F. R., & Malghani, M. (2018) · International Journal of English Linguistics · doi:10.5539/ijel.v8n3p210 · Cited by 15
Simons, J. D. (2019) · Professional School Counseling · doi:10.1177/2156759x19873902 · Cited by 16
“They accessed measures via a link to an online Research Electronic Data Capture (REDCap; Harris et al., 2009) survey form.”
MethodManipulating the role of cognitive control while taking the implicit association test
Siegel, E. F., Dougherty, M. R. P., & Huber, D. E. (2012) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2012.04.011 · Cited by 19
Grundy, J. G., Benarroch, M. F. F., LeBarr, A. N., & Shedden, J. M. (2014) · Social Neuroscience · doi:10.1080/17470919.2014.965339 · Cited by 16
“…slower to categorize items when self is paired with negative words than when self is paired with positive words due to differences in the strength of associations between items of positive and negative valence in relation to the self (i.e., the self-esteem IAT effect; Greenwald & Farnham, 2000).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialBanaji, M. R., & Heiphetz, L. (2015) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9780470561119.socpsy001010 · Cited by 15
Dentale, F., Vecchione, M., Coro, A. D., & Barbaranelli, C. (2011) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2011.10.009 · Cited by 16
Fatfouta, R., & Schröder–Abé, M. (2016) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2016.10.010 · Cited by 15
When disadvantaged adolescents strike out: the impact of negative metastereotypes on delinquency
Issmer, C., Stellmacher, J., & Gollwitzer, M. (2013) · Journal of Criminal Psychology · doi:10.1108/20093821311307721 · Cited by 16
Use of Affective Priming to Measure the Implicit Self-Reference Effect
Błaszczak, W., & Imbir, K. K. (2012) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.2466/07.21.24.pr0.111.4.107-114 · Cited by 14
Early implicit–explicit discrepancies in self-esteem as correlates of childhood depressive symptoms
Dario Cvencek, A., Greenwald, A. G., McLaughlin, K. A., & Meltzoff, A. N. (2020) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2020.104962 · Cited by 14
Self-citationMøller, J., & Trautwein, U. (2020) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-662-61403-7_8 · Cited by 14
Cognitive Representations of Sexual Self Differ as a Function of Gender and Sexual Debut
Lindgren, K. P., Schacht, R. L., Mullins, P. M., & Blayney, J. A. (2009) · Archives of Sexual Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10508-009-9545-z · Cited by 14
Kurman, J., Rothschild‐Yakar, L., Angel, R., & Katz, M. (2015) · Journal of Attention Disorders · doi:10.1177/1087054715569599 · Cited by 14
“Studies of implicit self-esteem have shown it to be a construct distinct from explicit self-esteem (Greenwald & Farnham, 2000; Zeigler-Hill, Clark, & Beckman, 2011), with correlations between the two ranging from non-significant to midsized (Hofmann, Gawronski, Gschwendner, Le, & Schmitt, 2005).”
BackgroundMethodNail, P. R., Simon, J. B., Bihm, E. M., & Beasley, W. H. (2014) · Journal of School Violence · doi:10.1080/15388220.2014.938270 · Cited by 14
“…measured defensive personality among eighth-grade American students from Massachusetts with high explicit/conscious self-esteem, as measured by self-report, accompanied by low implicit/nonconscious self-esteem, as measured by a self-relevant word reaction-time task (Greenwald & Farnham, 2000).”
MethodSelf-Evaluations of Social Rank and Affiliation in Social Anxiety: Explicit and Implicit Measures
Gilboa‐Schechtman, E., Friedman, L., Helpman, L., & Kananov, J. (2013) · International Journal of Cognitive Therapy · doi:10.1521/ijct.2013.6.3.208 · Cited by 14
Greater Impairment in Negative Emotion Evaluation Ability in Patients with Paranoid Schizophrenia
An, S. K., Lee, E. M., Kim, J., Namkoong, K., Kang, J. I., Jeon, J. H., Seok, J., & Choi, S. (2006) · Yonsei Medical Journal · doi:10.3349/ymj.2006.47.3.343 · Cited by 14
Boucher, K., Bégin, C., Gagnon‐Girouard, M., & Ratté, C. (2015) · Psychology · doi:10.4236/psych.2015.615200 · Cited by 15
“Implicit self-esteem was assessed with the Implicit Association Test (Self-esteem IAT; Greenwald & Farnham, 2000), a categorization task that measures automatic response latency between self-relevant and not-self-relevant words associated with pleasant and unpleasant words.”
MethodMultisensory stimulation with other-race faces and the reduction of racial prejudice
Estudillo, A. J., & Bindemann, M. (2016) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2016.04.006 · Cited by 12
Measuring Self-Esteem with Games
Santos, C. P., Hutchinson, K., Khan, V.-J., & Markopoulos, P. (2017) · ACM International Conference on Intelligent User Interfaces (IUI) · doi:10.1145/3025171.3025196 · Cited by 15
“The Self-Esteem Implicit Association Test [9] also uses timing and pace to measure self-esteem.”
BackgroundMethodNo sense of ownership in weak participation: a forest conservation experiment in Tanzania
Handberg, Ø. N. (2018) · Environment and Development Economics · doi:10.1017/s1355770x18000190 · Cited by 14
“That we tend to implicitly self-evaluate ourselves positively implies that we non-consciously think of our self-concept and self-esteem in positive terms (Bosson et al., 2000; Greenwald and Farnham, 2000; Gawronski et al., 2007; Stieger et al., 2012).”
BackgroundMethodA tutorial on how to compute traditional IAT effects with {R}
Röhner, J., & Thoss, P. (2019) · The Quantitative Methods for Psychology · doi:10.20982/tqmp.15.2.p134 · Cited by 14
“The IAT procedure In the self-esteem IAT (Greenwald & Farnham, 2000; Rudolph, Schröder, & Schütz, 2006), as used in the example data, the target discrimination includes self-relevant (i.e., I, self, me, my, own, mine) and non-self-relevant (i.e., they, them, yours, you, others, their) words, and…”
Szpara, M. Y., & Wylie, E. C. (2005) · Teachers College Record The Voice of Scholarship in Education · doi:10.1177/016146810510700410 · Cited by 14
“The work of Greenwald and colleagues (Greenwald & Banaji, 1995; Greenwald & Farnham, 2000; Greenwald, McGhee, & Schwartz, 1998) supports this tendency for individuals to harbor implicit, often stereotypical associations of specific subpopulations.”
BackgroundZlatevska, N., & Spence, M. T. (2012) · Psychology and Marketing · doi:10.1002/mar.20524 · Cited by 14
Devos, T., Diaz, P., Viera, E., & Dunn, R. M. (2007) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/15298860601118710 · Cited by 14
“Recently developed techniques allow researchers to assess the direction and the strength of implicit associations between concepts such as self, social groups, or attributes (Greenwald & Farnham, 2000 ; Greenwald et al, 2002 ; Nosek, Banaji, & Greenwald, 2002b ).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialMcKay, R. T., Arciuli, J., Atkinson, A., Bennett, E., & Pheils, E. (2010) · Cortex; a journal devoted to the study of the nervous system and behavior · doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2009.05.004 · Cited by 13
“Specifically, we utilised the evaluative3 IAT for implicit self-esteem (Greenwald and Farnham, 2000), incorporating five positive trait adjectives, five negative trait adjectives, five self words and five other words.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialImplicit self-esteem in the context of trait models of personality
Križan, Z., & Suls, J. M. (2009) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2009.01.011 · Cited by 14
Brain potentials show rapid activation of implicit attitudes towards young and old people
van der Lugt, A., Banfield, J. F., Osinsky, R., & Münte, T. F. (2011) · Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2011.10.032 · Cited by 14
“As these effects occur so early, they lend further support to the idea that attitude information can be automatically activated and can occur out of awareness (e.g., Fazio, 2001; Greenwald and Banaji, 1995; Greenwald and Farnham, 2000; Greenwald et al., 1998; Nosek and Banaji, 2001).”
The Breadth–Based Adjective Rating Task (BART) as an Indirect Measure of Self–Esteem
Karpinski, A., Steinberg, J. A., Versek, B., & Alloy, L. B. (2007) · Social Cognition · doi:10.1521/soco.2007.25.6.778 · Cited by 14
Kenyon, C. R., Tsoumanis, A., & Schwartz, I. S. (2016) · Epidemics · doi:10.1016/j.epidem.2016.02.002 · Cited by 12
Gaze behaviour, body image in women and online apparel shopping
Hollett, R. C., Panaia, P. M., & Smart, A. H. (2023) · International Journal of Consumer Studies · doi:10.1111/ijcs.12977 · Cited by 12
Wojtyna, E., Pasek, M., Nowakowska, A., Goździalska, A., & Jochymek, M. (2023) · Healthcare · doi:10.3390/healthcare11152203 · Cited by 13
“In contrast to explicit selfesteem, it is less distorted by self-presentation mechanisms [39], but it is more susceptible to experimental manipulation and less stable over time than its explicit counterpart.”
BackgroundInterfering implicit attitudes of adopting recycled products from construction wastes
Ding, Z., Yang, Q., Zhang, Z., & Chen, J. (2024) · Journal of Cleaner Production · doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2024.142775 · Cited by 16
The formation of implicit and explicit attitudes for neutral and valenced stimuli using the self
Perugini, M., Richetin, J., & Zogmaister, C. (2012) · Learning and Motivation · doi:10.1016/j.lmot.2012.02.002 · Cited by 13
Measuring Implicit Gender-Role Orientation: The Gender Initial Preference Task
Stieger, S., Burger, C., Schiller, F. R., et al. (2013) · Journal of Personality Assessment · doi:10.1080/00223891.2013.825622 · Cited by 13
“Another recently introduced measure of GRO is the Gender Implicit Association Test (Gender-IAT; Greenwald & Farnham, 2000), which is based on the conventional IAT procedure (Greenwald, McGhee, & Schwartz, 1998).”
MethodCheetham, T. J., Turner‐Cobb, J. M., & Gamble, T. (2015) · British Journal of Health Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjhp.12181 · Cited by 13
“…cognitive assessment tool using reaction times (RTs) to investigate attitudes across a range of topics including stereotyping or attitudes towards age, gender, race, and age and of associations between self-esteem and self-concept (Greenwald & Farnham, 2000; Greenwald,McGhee,& Schwarz, 1998).”
MethodDentale, F., Vecchione, M., Ghezzi, V., Spagnolo, G., Szemenyei, E., & Barbaranelli, C. (2020) · The Psychological Record · doi:10.1007/s40732-020-00392-4 · Cited by 16
“In recent decades, several measures were developed to capture indirectly automatic associations towards the self, such as the Implicit Associations Test (SE-IAT; Greenwald & Farnham, 2000) and its variants.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialBrain responses of dysphoric and control participants during a self‐esteem implicit association test
Lou, Y., Lei, Y., Astikainen, P., et al. (2021) · Psychophysiology · doi:10.1111/psyp.13768 · Cited by 13
Marton, G., Monzani, D., Vergani, L., Pizzoli, S. F. M., & Pravettoni, G. (2021) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.1177/00332941211054777 · Cited by 15
Is Paranoia a Defence against or an Expression of Low Self–Esteem?
Cicero, D. C., & Kerns, J. G. (2010) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1002/per.794 · Cited by 13
“In contrast, the Implicit Association Test (IAT; Greenwald & Farnham, 2000; Greenwald, McGhee, & Schwartz, 1998) has been found to be the most reliable and valid measure of implicit self-esteem (Bosson et al., 2000).”
BackgroundImplicit Self-Esteem in Borderline Personality and Depersonalization Disorder
Hedrick, A. N., & Berlin, H. A. (2012) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00091 · Cited by 17
“Furthermore, these two constructs are considered independent; implicit and explicit self-esteem are weakly correlated, and can even be at odds with one another (Greenwald and Farnham, 2000; Vater et al., 2010).”
BackgroundBetrayed? That’s Me: Implicit and Explicit Betrayed Self-Concept in Young Adults Abused as Children
Delker, B. C., & Freyd, J. (2017) · Journal of Aggression Maltreatment & Trauma · doi:10.1080/10926771.2017.1308982 · Cited by 11
“Stimuli were derived from other self-concept IATs (e.g., Greenwald & Farnham, 2000; Lindgren et al., 2013) and conceptual and empirical work on betrayal, with consideration of standard IAT stimuli development guidelines (Nosek et al., 2005).”
MethodPhills, C. E., Kawakami, K., Krusemark, D., & Nguyen, J. V. L. (2017) · Social Psychological and Personality Science · doi:10.1177/1948550617732817 · Cited by 14
“To assess self-out-group associations (Greenwald & Farnham, 2000), participants were instructed to categorize the photographs of Blacks and Whites included in the attitude IAT and four words related to the self (I, me, mine, self, and they) and others (they, them, their, and others).”
Method“I'm a Mac” versus “I'm a PC”: Personality Differences between Mac and PC Users in a College Sample
Nevid, J. S., & Pastva, A. (2013) · Psychology and Marketing · doi:10.1002/mar.20672 · Cited by 13
Pick your poison: Stimuli selection in alcohol-related implicit measures
Lindgren, K. P., Westgate, E. C., Kilmer, J. R., Kaysen, D. L., & Teachman, B. A. (2012) · Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2012.03.024 · Cited by 13
“…contradictory: one study found that an idiographic self-esteem IAT had stronger correlations with explicit measures than a standardized IAT (e.g., Greenwald & Farnham, 2000) and another study found that idiographic anxietyrelated IATs and single-category IATs did not perform better than their…”
ResultFarrar, S. T., Stopa, L. L., & Turner, H. M. (2014) · Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2014.07.011 · Cited by 18
Two faces of human happiness: Explicit and implicit life satisfaction
Jang, D., & Kim, D. (2009) · Asian Journal Of Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1467-839x.2009.01284.x · Cited by 13
“Numerous measures such as racial attitudes (Greenwald et al., 1998), self-esteem (Greenwald & Farnham, 2000) and attitudes to risk (Ronay & Kim, 2006) using the IAT have been developed and published with significant psychometric and empirical evidence.”
MethodPark, J. Y., Ryu, V., Ha, R. Y., Lee, S. J., Choi, W.-J., Ha, K., & Cho, H.-S. (2013) · Comprehensive Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.comppsych.2013.09.012 · Cited by 13
Implicit Association Test (IAT)
Lehr, S. A., & Banaji, M. R. (2011) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/obo/9780199828340-0033 · Cited by 13
Environmentally sustainable fashion and conspicuous behavior
Lee, S. E., & Lee, K. (2024) · Humanities and Social Sciences Communications · doi:10.1057/s41599-024-02955-0 · Cited by 13
“Self-concept serves as the foundation for symbolic consumption; it originates from the motivation of self-enhancement and maintenance of self-esteem, which express individual values and is interpreted as behavior for social adoption (Greenwald & Farnham, 2000; Shavitt, 1990).”
Explicit and indirect, latency-based measure of aggression in striking combat sports
Predoiu, R., Piotrowski, A., Stan, E. A., Ciolacu, M. V., Bitang, A., Croitoru, D., & Cosma, G. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1451244 · Cited by 13
Explicit thoughts of security activate implicit self‐doubt in anxiously attached participants
Peterson, J. L. (2014) · Personal Relationships · doi:10.1111/pere.12027 · Cited by 13
Self-regulation of healthy nutrition: automatic and controlled processes
Eschenbeck, H., Heim-Dreger, U., Steinhilber, A., & Kohlmann, C. (2016) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-016-0108-5 · Cited by 13
“It has been used to assess implicit attitudes, stereotypes or self-concepts [12–14] related to a variety of domains (e.”
MethodEspinosa, R., Valiente, C., Varese, F., & Bentall, R. P. (2018) · The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease · doi:10.1097/nmd.0000000000000858 · Cited by 12
Lahtinen, A., Juvonen, K. R., Lapveteläinen, A. T., et al. (2019) · Physiology & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2019.112589 · Cited by 12
“The test has been used, for example, to evaluate self-esteem [7], stereotypes [8] and political behavior [9] as well as associations within various food contexts [10–14].”
The Role of Self-Image Concerns in Discrepancies Between Implicit and Explicit Self-Esteem
Laws, V. L., & Rivera, L. M. (2012) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167212452613 · Cited by 13
“For a complete description of the SE-IAT, see Greenwald and Farnham (2000).”
Fasoli, F., Cadinu, M., Carnaghi, A., Galdi, S., Guizzo, F., & Tassara, L. (2018) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2017.11.011 · Cited by 8
Klippel, A., Reininghaus, U., Viechtbauer, W., Decoster, J., Delespaul, P., Derom, C. A., Binder, M. D., Jacobs, N., Menne‐Lothmann, C., Rutten, B. P. F., et al. (2018) · Child Psychiatry & Human Development · doi:10.1007/s10578-018-0792-x · Cited by 12
“Implicit self-esteem was measured using the Single Category Implicit Association Task (SC-IAT) [54, 55].”
MethodRobinson, M. D., & Sedikides, C. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.031 · Cited by 18
Nakamura, A. (2021) · Journal of Chemical Education · doi:10.1021/acs.jchemed.1c00422 · Cited by 12
Freng, S., & Kehn, A. (2013) · Psychiatry Psychology and Law · doi:10.1080/13218719.2012.735885 · Cited by 11
“…Chassin, 2003), discriminatory behavior (McConnell & Leibold, 2001), fear (Ellwart, Rinck, & Becker, 2006), motives (Slabbinck, De Houwer, & Van Kenhove, 2011), product preference (Maison, Greenwald, & Bruin, 2004), self-esteem (Greenwald & Farnham, 2000), and suicidal behavior (Nock et al., 2010).”
Roberts, J. E., Porter, A., & Vergara‐Lopez, C. (2015) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-015-9732-2 · Cited by 12
“The SE IAT (Greenwald and Farnham 2000) was administered using Inquisit 3 (version 3.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialThe development and validation of an implicit measure of competence need satisfaction
van der Kaap‐Deeder, J., Houwer, J. D., Hughes, S., Spruyt, A., & Vansteenkiste, M. (2018) · Motivation and Emotion · doi:10.1007/s11031-018-9685-3 · Cited by 13
Moderators of the relationship between implicit and explicit attitudesPreprint
Nosek, B. A. (2016) · doi:10.31219/osf.io/wqpzj · Cited by 12
Jordan, C. H., Zeigler‐Hill, V., & Cameron, J. J. (2015) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-08-097086-8.25090-3 · Cited by 17
The Validation Crisis in PsychologyPreprint
Schimmack, U. (2019) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/q247m · Cited by 12
“For example, it has been known for a long time that implicit measures of self-esteem have low convergent validity (Bosson et al., 2000), but this finding has not deterred researchers from claiming that the self-esteem IAT is a valid measure of implicit self-esteem (Greenwald & Farnham (2000).”
Backgroundvan Tuijl, L. A., Glashouwer, K. A., Elgersma, H. J., Bockting, C. L. H., Penninx, B. W. J. H., & de Jong, P. J. (2018) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2018.06.001 · Cited by 11
Assessing acute stress with the implicit association test
Sato, H., & Kawahara, J.-I. (2012) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699931.2011.561033 · Cited by 11
“Typically, in a critical block (eg, Greenwald & Farnham, 2000 ), participants are presented with a word and asked to sort it into two categories.”
BackgroundThe Five-Factor Model of Personality: Consensus and Controversy
McCrae, R. R. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.013 · Cited by 20
Good, Better, Best: Between Culture and Self‐Enhancement
Kurman, J. (2010) · Social and Personality Psychology Compass · doi:10.1111/j.1751-9004.2010.00269.x · Cited by 11
The relative contributions of implicit and explicit self-esteem to narcissistic use of Facebook
Subramanian, R., Wise, K. R., Davis, D., Bhandari, M., & Morris, E. (2014) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2014.07.023 · Cited by 12
“Consistent with previous research (Greenwald & Farnham, 2000), participants were randomly assigned to 1 of 2 conditions that counterbalanced the sequence of different blocks of the IAT.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialEvaluating self- vs. other-owned objects: The modulatory role of oxytocin
Wu, Y., van Dijk, E., & Zhou, X. (2012) · Biological Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2012.11.011 · Cited by 12
Mirams, L., Poliakoff, E., Zandstra, E. H., et al. (2014) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0107912 · Cited by 11
“Following Greenwald and Farnham [13], five self (myself, mine, me, my, self), other (other, them, their, they, them), positive (rainbow, happy, smile, warmth, joy) and negative (pain, death, poison, grief, agony) words were used as stimuli.”
BackgroundIntergenerational Intervention to Mitigate Children’s Bias Against the Elderly
Babcock, R. L., MaloneBeach, E. E., & Hou, B. (2016) · Journal of Intergenerational Relationships · doi:10.1080/15350770.2016.1229542 · Cited by 11
“Implicit measures are important as they are designed to assess attitudes without the influence of social desirability and often produce results that are distinct from those found using explicit measures (Cunningham, Preacher, & Banaji, 2001; Greenwald & Farnham, 2000; Pantos & Perkins, 2013).”
ResultVersluis, A., Verkuil, B., & BROSSCHOT, J. F. (2017) · Stress and Health · doi:10.1002/smi.2777 · Cited by 13
“The IAT was used to measure implicit self‐esteem (Greenwald & Farnham, 2000).”
MethodHatvany, T. C., Burkley, E., & Curtis, J. (2017) · Social and Personality Psychology Compass · doi:10.1111/spc3.12369 · Cited by 12
It works both ways. Enhancing explicit self-esteem using the self-reference task
Maricutoiu, L. P., Payne, B. K., & Iliescu, D. (2018) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2018.08.017 · Cited by 11
Method for Appropriating the Brief Implicit Association Test to Elicit Biases in Users
Dingler, T., Tag, B., Eccles, D., van Berkel, N., & Kostakos, V. (2022) · CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3491102.3517570 · Cited by 11
“While the IAT and BIAT have been widely applied to topics related to race, gender, and self-identifcation [31, 54], application with regard to thematic topics is much rarer.”
BackgroundMethodIt is not just memory: propositional thinking influences performance on the autobiographical IAT.
Vargo, E. J., Petróczi, A., Shah, I., & Naughton, D. (2014) · Drug and Alcohol Dependence · doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2014.10.008 · Cited by 11
Selbst und Informationsverarbeitung
Schütz, A., & Sellin, I. (2003) · Zeitschrift für Differentielle und Diagnostische Psychologie · doi:10.1024/0170-1789.24.3.151 · Cited by 12
Is the Self Always Better than a Friend? Self-Face Recognition in Christians and Atheists
Ma, Y., & Han, S. (2012) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0037824 · Cited by 12
“positive items, similar to the previous work [18,19].”
Resultvan Well, S., & Kolk, A. M. M. (2008) · Psychology and Health · doi:10.1080/08870440701491381 · Cited by 11
“Gender role adherence was assessed with a Gender Implicit Association Test (GIAT; Greenwald & Farnham, 2000 ).”
MethodWong, Y. J., Burkley, M., Bell, A. C., Wang, S., & Klann, E. M. (2016) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2016.08.026 · Cited by 11
Cludius, B., Schmidt, A. F., Moritz, S., Banse, R., & Jelinek, L. (2017) · Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2017.01.001 · Cited by 11
The emergence of implicit self-esteem
Dijksterhuis, A. (2006) · Netherlands journal of psychology · doi:10.1007/bf03061047 · Cited by 11
“Relative to people with high implicit self-esteem, people with low implicit self-esteem show diminished levels of aspiration after failure ( Greenwald & Farnham, 2000 ) and more anxiety during a very personal interview than high implicit self-esteem individuals (Spalding & Hardin, 1999).”
BackgroundDo Black Injuries Matter?: Implicit Bias and Jury Decision Making in Tort CasesPreprint
Cardi, W. J., Hans, V. P., & Parks, G. S. (2018) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3205535 · Cited by 9
Implicit gender-science stereotypes and college-major intentions of italian adolescents
Gioannis, E. D. (2022) · Social Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/s11218-022-09709-3 · Cited by 10
“What is measured is then the relative strengths of pairs of associations rather than the absolute strength of a single association (Greenwald & Farnham, 2000).”
BackgroundMacken, L., & Connell, M. O. (2022) · Cogent Psychology · doi:10.1080/23311908.2022.2156842 · Cited by 10
“The creation, cleaning, and scoring of the IAT was conducted with “Shinyapp” via “Iatgen” (Carpenter et al., 2019) following D -score algorithms (Greenwald & Farnham, 2000).”
MethodNatoli, A. P., & Rodriguez, C. M. (2024) · Discover Mental Health · doi:10.1007/s44192-024-00059-4 · Cited by 14
Pérez, V. A. F., Sánchez-Prada, A., Álvarez, C. D., & Fiol, E. B. (2020) · Psicologia Reflexão e Crítica · doi:10.1186/s41155-020-00165-6 · Cited by 12
Yue, T., Fu, A., Xu, Y., & Huang, X. (2021) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-020-01320-z · Cited by 10
Silent or Talking in the Classroom: Implicit Self-Stereotyping Among Asian and White Students
Devos, T., & Yokoyama, Y. (2014) · Basic and Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/01973533.2014.934960 · Cited by 10
“We selected an IAT assessing implicit self-esteem (Bosson, Swann, & Pennebaker, 2000; Greenwald & Farnham, 2000) because it does not differ in terms of relevance to the two experimental conditions and should not make ethnic identity salient.”
BackgroundMethodMenne-Lothmann, C., Decoster, J., van Winkel, R., Collip, D., Rutten, B., Delespaul, P., de Hert, M., Derom, C., Thiery, E., Jacobs, N., et al. (2017) · Nöropsikiyatri arşivi · doi:10.5152/npa.2017.19318 · Cited by 10
“Implicit measurement of self-esteem In the single category implicit association task (SC-IAT) for self-esteem (27,28), individuals were asked to categorize 12 personalized self-words (e.”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Greenwald, A. G., & Farnham, S. D.
- Affiliations
- University of Washington (US)
- Venue
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
- Published
- 2000-12
- Volume
- 79
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 1022-1038
- ISSN
- 0022-3514 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1315
- OpenAlex
- W4231600766
- Cited by
- 1,393
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 10 · 2025: 22 · 2024: 33 · 2023: 34 · 2022: 46 · 2021: 67 · 2020: 85 · 2019: 56 · 2018: 62 · 2017: 56 · 2016: 93 · 2015: 65 · 2014: 71 · 2013: 71 · 2012: 79
- FWCI
- 85.23
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health (K05MH001533, R01MH041328, MH-57672, MH41328, MH01533, R01MH057672)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Psychological Testing and Assessment
- Keywords
- Implicit Association Test, self-esteem, self-concept, implicit attitudes
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Female, Humans, Internal-External Control, Male, Microcomputers, Personality Inventory, Psychometrics, Self Concept, Software, Word Association Tests, Reproducibility of Results
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
