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Using the implicit association test to measure self-esteem and self-concept
Abstract
Experiment 1 used the Implicit Association Test (IAT; A. G. Greenwald, D. E. McGhee, & J. L. K. Schwartz, 1998) to measure self-esteem by assessing automatic associations of self with positive or negative valence. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) showed that two IAT measures defined a factor that was distinct from, but weakly correlated with, a factor defined by standard explicit (self-report) measures of self-esteem. Experiment 2 tested known-groups validity of two IAT gender self-concept measures. Compared with well-established explicit measures, the IAT measures revealed triple the difference in measured masculinity-femininity between men and women. Again, CFA revealed construct divergence between implicit and explicit measures. Experiment 3 assessed the self-esteem IAT's validity in predicting cognitive reactions to success and failure. High implicit self-esteem was associated in the predicted fashion with buffering against adverse effects of failure on two of four measures.
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“Similar tendencies have been demonstrated previously, wherein adults displayed faster response times when associating the self with positive attributes (34).”
From Development of self-protective biases in response to social evaluative feedback (2017) · cites this paper as [34]
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Ma, Y., & Han, S. (2010) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance · doi:10.1037/a0015797 · Cited by 197
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Implicit cognition and depression: A meta-analysis
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The neural basis of implicit moral attitude—An IAT study using event-related fMRI
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“The IAT can therefore be used to identify an individual's implicit attitudes, for example, to out-groups, regardless of the individual's wish to hide these attitudes (e.g., Greewald et al., 1998; Greenwald and Farnham, 2000).”
BackgroundLevesque, C., & Brown, K. W. (2007) · Motivation and Emotion · doi:10.1007/s11031-007-9075-8 · Cited by 188
“…day-to-day) outcome rather than on a one-occasion self-report where selfpresentation concerns and perceived social demands may be more salient (Asendorpf et al. 2002; Bosson et al. 2000; Greenwald and Farnham 2000; McClelland et al. 1989; see also Wilson et al. 2000 for a general discussion).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialKnowing who’s boss: Implicit perceptions of status from the nonverbal expression of pride.
Shariff, A., & Tracy, J. L. (2009) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/a0017089 · Cited by 198
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“Since its introduction (Greenwald et al., 1998), the IAT has been shown to validly measure implicit evaluations in a number of contexts, including prejudice toward social groups, speech anxiety, or self-esteem (e.g., Egloff & Schmukle, 2002; Greenwald & Farnham, 2000; Karpinski, 2004).”
BackgroundSchmeichel, B. J., Gailliot, M. T., Filardo, E.-A., McGregor, I., Gitter, S., & Baumeister, R. F. (2009) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0015091 · Cited by 182
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RetractedImplicit self-esteem compensation: Automatic threat defense
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Getting Explicit About the Implicit
Uhlmann, E. L., Leavitt, K., Menges, J. I., Koopman, J., Howe, M. D., & Johnson, R. E. (2012) · Organizational Research Methods · doi:10.1177/1094428112442750 · Cited by 190
“For example, if a researcher were trying to create an IAT to capture associations between self and leader versus follower, they might inadvertently be measuring implicit self-esteem if participants can sort the leader words from the follower words based on their valence (Greenwald & Farnham, 2000).”
BackgroundMeasuring Self-Esteem using the Implicit Association Test: The Role of the Other
Karpinski, A. (2004) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167203258835 · Cited by 175
“A second approach is to use ideographic target words for the unspecified other category that are selected by each participant to be familiar, not self-identified, and neither strongly liked or disliked (e.g., see Greenwald & Farnham, 2000).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialHypothesis: social defeat is a risk factor for schizophrenia?
Selten, J., & Cantor‐Graae, E. (2007) · The British Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1192/bjp.191.51.s9 · Cited by 177
“This type of research has been facilitated by major advances in the development of implicit association tests to measure self-esteem (e.g., Greenwald & Farnham, 2000; Greenwald et al, 2002).”
Using the implicit association test to measure age differences in implicit social cognitions.
Hummert, M. L., Garstka, T. A., O'Brien, L. T., Greenwald, A. G., & Mellott, D. S. (2002) · Psychology and Aging · doi:10.1037/0882-7974.17.3.482 · Cited by 243
Self-citationImplicit self-concept and moral action
Perugini, M., & Leone, L. (2009) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2009.03.015 · Cited by 169
The relevance of self-esteem and self-schemas to persecutory delusions: A systematic review
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Different Hats, Different Obligations: Plural Occupational Identities and Situated Moral Judgments
Leavitt, K., Reynolds, S. J., Barnes, C. M., Schilpzand, P., & Hannah, S. T. (2012) · Academy of Management Journal · doi:10.5465/amj.2010.1023 · Cited by 171
Intergroup Perception and Cognition
Kawakami, K., Amodio, D. M., & Hugenberg, K. (2017) · Advances in experimental social psychology · doi:10.1016/bs.aesp.2016.10.001 · Cited by 186
“For example, in a series of experiments, we utilized two types of Implicit Association Tests (IATs, Greenwald et al., 2002; Greenwald & Farnham, 2000) and a psychophysiological measure of brain activation to assess outgroup identification.”
MethodPanksepp, J., & Northoff, G. (2008) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2008.03.002 · Cited by 165
“Greenwald and Farnham (2000) observed that participants were much faster to respond when self-related items (e.g., their birth month) were paired with pleasant words than when self-related items were paired with unpleasant words.”
The effects of an academic environment intervention on science identification among women in STEM
Ramsey, L. R., Betz, D. E., & Sekaquaptewa, D. (2013) · Social Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/s11218-013-9218-6 · Cited by 152
The development and psychometric validation of the Disability Attitude Implicit Association Test.
Pruett, S. R., & Chan, F. H. (2006) · Rehabilitation Psychology · doi:10.1037/0090-5550.51.3.202 · Cited by 152
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“Subsequent studies have provided support for these findings, with theoretical implications for racial stereotypes (Dasgupta, McGhee, Greenwald, & Banaji, 2000; De Houwer, 2001; McConnell & Leibold, 2001), selfesteem ( Greenwald & Farnham, 2000 ), age stereotypes (Mellott & Greenwald, 1998), academic preferences (Nosek…”
ResultA Latent State-Trait Analysis of Implicit and Explicit Personality Measures
Schmukle, S. C., & Egloff, B. (2005) · European Journal of Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1027/1015-5759.21.2.100 · Cited by 149
Self-reports are better measurement instruments than implicit measures
Corneille, O., & Gawronski, B. (2024) · Nature Reviews Psychology · doi:10.1038/s44159-024-00376-z · Cited by 191
Asgari, S., Dasgupta, N., & Stout, J. G. (2011) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167211431968 · Cited by 162
“…IATs have contrasted the self-concept with a generic other, an individual chosen by the participant, a best friend or ingroup, and a strongly liked or disliked cultural icon (Chen, Yamaguchi, & Greenwald, 2003; Greenwald & Farnham, 2000; Greenwald, Pickrell, & Farnham, 2002; Karpinski, 2004).”
BackgroundMeasuring alcohol expectancies with the implicit association test.
Jajodia, A., & Earleywine, M. (2003) · Psychology of Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1037/0893-164x.17.2.126 · Cited by 145
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“In line with a general definition of the self-concept by Greenwald et al. (2002), Asendorpf et al.”
Costantini, G., Richetin, J., Borsboom, D., Fried, E. I., Rhemtulla, M., & Perugini, M. (2015) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1002/per.2014 · Cited by 148
“…self-esteem would not seem to entail clear impulsive motivational and behavioural tendencies; nonetheless, it can be validly assessed using the IAT (Greenwald & Farnham, 2000), and its mechanisms can be conceptualized more clearly if one considers both direct and indirect measures (Zeigler-Hill,…”
BackgroundDiscrimination and the Implicit Association Test
Rudman, L. A., & Ashmore, R. D. (2007) · Group Processes & Intergroup Relations · doi:10.1177/1368430207078696 · Cited by 139
Krause, H.-V., Baum, K., Baumann, A., & Krasnova, H. (2019) · Media Psychology · doi:10.1080/15213269.2019.1656646 · Cited by 158
“…Self-Esteem Scale (RSES; Rosenberg, 1965), Bern subjective well-being questionnaire (BFW; Grob et al., 1991), Implicit Association Test (IAT; Greenwald & Farnham, 2000), Defensiveness-reducing paradigm (DRP; McQueen & Klein, 2006); d positive effect (+), non-significant effect (o) MEDIA…”
BackgroundDo features of stimuli influence IAT effects?
Bluemke, M., & Friese, M. (2005) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2005.03.004 · Cited by 142
van Tuijl, L. A., de Jong, P. J., Sportel, B. E., de Hullu, E., & Nauta, M. H. (2013) · Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2013.09.007 · Cited by 160
Teige, S., Schnabel, K., Banse, R., & Asendorpf, J. B. (2004) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1002/per.531 · Cited by 142
The Moral Self-Image Scale: Measuring and Understanding the Malleability of the Moral Self
Jordan, J., Leliveld, M. C., & Tenbrunsel, A. E. (2015) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01878 · Cited by 140
“Within the rich body of research on the “self ” (both the general and moral self), significant research proposes that the dynamics of the moral self explain immoral and moral behavior, yet no validated tool has been provided to measure this process (Zhong and Liljenquist, 2006; Sachdeva et al.,…”
BackgroundMethodEmotion response coherence: A dual-process perspective
Evers, C., Hopp, H., Gross, J. J., Fischer, A. H., Manstead, A. S. R., & Mauss, I. B. (2013) · Biological Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2013.11.003 · Cited by 154
“…is (a) psychometric evidence that automatic and reflective aspects of the same construct are distinct (e.g., Cunningham, Preacher, & Banaji, 2001; Greenwald & Farnham, 2000; Hofmann, Gawronski, Gschwendner, Le, & Schmitt, 2005; Nosek & Smith, 2007; Payne, Burkley, & Stokes, 2008); (b)…”
ResultChildren and social groups: A developmental analysis of implicit consistency in Hispanic Americans
Dunham, Y. C., Baron, A. S., & Banaji, M. R. (2007) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/15298860601115344 · Cited by 137
Sedikides, C. (2020) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2020.10.010 · Cited by 152
A Cognitive Skill Confound on the Implicit Association Test
McFarland, S. G., & Crouch, Z. (2002) · Social Cognition · doi:10.1521/soco.20.6.483.22977 · Cited by 136
Terror management and adults' attachment to their parents: The safe haven remains
Cox, C. R., Arndt, J., Pyszczynski, T., Greenberg, J., Abdollahi, A., & Solomon, S. (2008) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.94.4.696 · Cited by 136
Defensive pride and consensus: strength in imaginary numbers.
McGregor, I., Nail, P. R., Marigold, D. C., & Kang, S. (2005) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.89.6.978 · Cited by 137
“As reported in previous research (e.g., Greenwald & Farnham, 2000), the correlation between ESE and ISE was nonsignificant , r(38) ϭ .05, ns. Cronbach's alpha reliability for the three-item manipulation check of difficulty summarizing the statistics passage was .88.”
MethodThe Cambridge Handbook of Personality Psychology
(2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822 · Cited by 148
Self-esteem and depression revisited: Implicit positive self-esteem in depressed patients?
Raedt, R. D., Schacht, R., Franck, E., & Houwer, J. D. (2005) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2005.08.003 · Cited by 134
Haeffel, G. J., Abramson, L. Y., Brazy, P. C., Shah, J. Y., Teachman, B. A., & Nosek, B. A. (2006) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2006.09.003 · Cited by 130
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Todd, A. R., & Burgmer, P. (2013) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0031999 · Cited by 145
Stalking the perfect measure of implicit self-esteem: The blind men and the elephant revisited?
Bosson, J. K., Jr. Swann William, B., & Pennebaker, J. W. (2000) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.79.4.631 · Cited by 1,130
Implicit Cognitive Distortions and Sexual Offending
Mihailides, S., Devilly, G. J., & Ward, T. J. (2004) · Sexual Abuse · doi:10.1177/107906320401600406 · Cited by 136
“…is accumulating evidence at a rapid pace in a number of areas (e.g., Ashburn-Nardo, Voils, & Monteith, 2001; Dasgupta, McGhee, Greenwald, & Banaji, 2000; De Houwer, 2001; Greenwald & Farnham, 2000; Milne & Grafman, 2001; Rudman, Greenwald, Mellott, & Schwartz, 1999; Teachman, Gregg, & Woody, 2001).”
Karnal, N., Machiels, C. J. A., Orth, U. R., & Mai, R. (2016) · Food Quality and Preference · doi:10.1016/j.foodqual.2016.04.004 · Cited by 146
Reporting Tendencies Underlie Discrepancies Between Implicit and Explicit Measures of Self-Esteem
Olson, M. A., Fázio, R. H., & Hermann, A. D. (2007) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01890.x · Cited by 129
“For example, Greenwald and Farnham (2000) demonstrated that higher scores on a self-esteem Implicit Association Test (IAT) were associated with less negative reactions to failure feedback, a buttressing effect often found for explicit self-esteem (see also Hetts & Pelham, 2001; Jones, Pelham,…”
BackgroundNarcissistic Fragility: Rethinking Its Links to Explicit and Implicit Self-esteem
Gregg, A. P., & Sedikides, C. (2009) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/15298860902815451 · Cited by 127
“Such signs include unstable self-esteem (Zeigler-Hill, 2006 ), verbal defensiveness (Kernis, Lakey, & Heppner, 2008 ), reactivity to threat (McGregor & Jordan, 2007 ), and cognitive reactions to success or failure (Greenwald & Farnham, 2000 ).”
BackgroundGender differences in implicit and explicit anxiety measures
Egloff, B., & Schmukle, S. C. (2003) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2003.07.002 · Cited by 136
Rosen, P. J., Milich, R. S., & Harris, M. J. (2007) · Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2007.02.001 · Cited by 132
Reliability of Implicit Self–Esteem Measures Revisited
Krause, S., Back, M., Egloff, B., & Schmukle, S. (2011) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1002/per.792 · Cited by 117
“The size of the test–retest correlation resembled previous results for standard self-esteem IATs (see Greenwald & Farnham, 2000; Rudolph et al., 2008; but see also Bosson et al., 2000 for an unusually high temporal stability of the self-esteem IAT).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialPulling yourself together: Meditation promotes congruence between implicit and explicit self-esteem
Koole, S. L., Govorun, O., Cheng, C. M., & Gallucci, M. (2009) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2009.05.018 · Cited by 135
Gratitude and Subjective Wellbeing: A Proposal of Two Causal Frameworks
Alkozei, A., Smith, R. S., & Killgore, W. D. S. (2017) · Journal of Happiness Studies · doi:10.1007/s10902-017-9870-1 · Cited by 149
“Using implicit self-esteem association tests (e.g., Greenwald and Farnham 2000) may therefore be a good alternative to use in future research.”
MethodDevos, T., & Banaji, M. R. (2003) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1196/annals.1279.009 · Cited by 152
Self‐esteem: a behavioural genetic perspective
Neiss, M. B., Sedikides, C., & Stevenson, J. (2002) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1002/per.456 · Cited by 124
Thomaes, S., Reijntjes, A., Orobio de Castro, B., Bushman, B. J., Poorthuis, A., & Telch, M. J. (2010) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01435.x · Cited by 118
Lindgren, K. P., Neighbors, C., Gasser, M. L., Ramirez, J. J., & Cvencek, D. (2017) · The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse · doi:10.1080/00952990.2016.1229324 · Cited by 120
“An implicit self-concept could consist of an association about the self and a personality trait (me = shy; (17), gender (me = female; (19) or substance use (me = drinker; (20)).”
Global, contingent and implicit self-esteem and psychopathological symptoms in adolescents
Bos, A. E. R., Huijding, J., Muris, P., Vogel, L. R. R., & Biesheuvel, J. (2009) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2009.10.025 · Cited by 120
Explicit self-criticism and implicit self-regard: Evaluating self and friend in two cultures
Kitayama, S., & Uchida, Y. (2003) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/s0022-1031(03)00026-x · Cited by 119
“Explicit Self-Criticism and Implicit Self-Regard To measure self-evaluations at an implicit level, Greenwald and colleagues have devised Implicit Association Test (or IAT; Greenwald & Farnham, 2000; Greenwald, McGhee, & Schwartz, 1998).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialTheodoridis, A. G. (2017) · The Journal of Politics · doi:10.1086/692738 · Cited by 117
Simple geometric shapes are implicitly associated with affective value
Larson, C. L., Aronoff, J., & Steuer, E. L. (2011) · Motivation and Emotion · doi:10.1007/s11031-011-9249-2 · Cited by 117
Implicit but not explicit self-esteem predicts future depressive symptomatology
Franck, E., Raedt, R. D., & Houwer, J. D. (2007) · Behaviour Research and Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.brat.2007.01.008 · Cited by 115
Ayduk, Ö. N., Mischel, W., & Downey, G. (2002) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/1467-9280.00478 · Cited by 116
The relational responding task: toward a new implicit measure of beliefs
Houwer, J. D., Heider, N., Spruyt, A., Roets, A., & Hughes, S. (2015) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00319 · Cited by 113
Self‐esteem discrepancies and defensive reactions to social feedback
Schröder–Abé, M., Rudolph, A., Wiesner, A., & Schütz, A. (2007) · International Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1080/00207590601068134 · Cited by 114
When a Threat to the Brand Is a Threat to the Self
Lisjak, M., Lee, A. Y., & Gardner, W. L. (2012) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167212445300 · Cited by 125
“Studies have repeatedly shown that under threat, people with low implicit self-esteem are more defensive than those with high implicit self-esteem (e.g., Greenwald & Farnham, 2000; Spalding & Hardin, 1999).”
BackgroundAnger as “seeing red”: Evidence for a perceptual association
Fetterman, A. K., Robinson, M. D., & Meier, B. P. (2012) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699931.2012.673477 · Cited by 115
“A benefit of doing so is that two-alternative choice tasks are more common to the social cognition literature (Fazio & Olson, 2003 ; Greenwald & Farnham, 2000 ) and the processes contributing to performance in them are better understood than are choice tasks with more than two response options (Luce, 1959 ; Meyer, Irw…”
BackgroundNürnberger, M., Nerb, J., Schmitz, F., Keller, J., & Sütterlin, S. (2015) · The Journal of Experimental Education · doi:10.1080/00220973.2015.1027807 · Cited by 124
“Finally, IAT scores tend to be larger when the compatible block is administered first than when the incompatible block is presented first (“compatibility order effects”; Greenwald & Farnham, 2000).”
BackgroundThe IAT as a predictor of food choice: The case of fruits versus snacks
Richetin, J., Perugini, M., Prestwich, A., & O'Gorman, R. (2007) · International Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1080/00207590601067078 · Cited by 118
“Numerous studies have shown the reliability of the IAT in various domains, with values generally hovering around .80 for the internal consistency and .60 for test-retest stability (e.g., Dasgupta & Greenwald, 2001; Greenwald & Farnham, 2000; Greenwald & Nosek, 2001; Perugini, 2005a).”
BackgroundJiang, J., Zhang, Y., Ke, Y., Hawk, S. T., & Qiu, H. (2015) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2015.01.001 · Cited by 122
“Then, they completed the IAT as an implicit self-esteem measure and the collage task used in Study 1b as a materialism measure.”
MethodInfluentialDevelopment of self-protective biases in response to social evaluative feedback
Rodman, A. M., Powers, K. E., & Somerville, L. H. (2017) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1712398114 · Cited by 110
Self-esteem Interventions in Adults – A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis
Niveau, N., New, B., & Beaudoin, M. (2021) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2021.104131 · Cited by 117
Teachman, B. A., & Allen, J. P. (2007) · Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology · doi:10.1007/s10802-006-9084-1 · Cited by 109
“(This approach reflects a modification of earlier work establishing implicit measures related to self-esteem, in general; Greenwald & Farnham, 2000, and to social anxiety, in particular; de Jong, 2002).”
MethodImplicit Infantilizing Attitudes About Disability
Robey, K. L., Beckley, L., & Kirschner, M. (2006) · Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities · doi:10.1007/s10882-006-9027-3 · Cited by 109
“Other IAT research (Bosson et al., 2000; Greenwald and Farnham, 2000; Greenwald et al., 1998) has found weak positive correlations between IAT and self-report explicit measures.”
BackgroundChanging self-esteem in children and adolescents: a roadmap for future interventions
Bos, A. E. R., Muris, P., Mulkens, S., & Schaalma, H. P. (2006) · Netherlands journal of psychology · doi:10.1007/bf03061048 · Cited by 108
“It is an automatic attitude towards the self that influences self-evaluations and evaluations of self-relevant objects (Baccus, Baldwin, & Packer, 2004; Greenwald & Farnham, 2000).”
BackgroundFranck, E., Raedt, R. D., Dereu, M., & den Abbeele, D. V. (2006) · Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2006.05.003 · Cited by 108
Gender differences in explicit and implicit risk attitudes: A socially facilitated phenomenon
Ronay, R., & Kim, D. (2006) · British Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1348/014466605x66420 · Cited by 108
“Similarly women respondents have been found to more easily associate with traditional female stereotypes on the IAT than on explicit measures (Greenwald & Farnham, 2000), again possibly reflecting their exposure to these stereotypes in mainstream media.”
BackgroundToma, C. L. (2013) · Media Psychology · doi:10.1080/15213269.2012.762189 · Cited by 114
“IMPLICIT SELF-ESTEEM State self-esteem was measured using an Implicit Association Test (IAT), which captures automatic evaluations (Greenwald & Farnham, 2000).”
BackgroundMethodTwenty-Five Years of Research Using Implicit Measures
Gawronski, B., Houwer, J. D., & Sherman, J. W. (2020) · Social Cognition · doi:10.1521/soco.2020.38.supp.s1 · Cited by 114
Buhlmann, U., Teachman, B. A., Naumann, E., Fehlinger, T., & Rief, W. (2009) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2009.02.008 · Cited by 107
What Motivates Participation in Violent Political Action
Ginges, J., & Atran, S. (2009) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2009.04543.x · Cited by 111
Why do Westerners self‐enhance more than East Asians?
Falk, C. F., Heine, S. J., Yuki, M., & Takemura, K. N. (2009) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1002/per.715 · Cited by 115
“…in self-enhancing motivations; namely, comparisons of implicit selfesteem using the implicit associations test for self-esteem measure (IATSE; Greenwald & Farnham, 2000) did not reveal cultural differences between East Asian and North American samples (Kitayama & Uchida, 2003; Kobayashi &…”
MethodInfluentialSelf, social identity and psychological well-being
Sharma, S., & Sharma, M. (2010) · Psychological Studies · doi:10.1007/s12646-010-0011-8 · Cited by 117
Assessing individual differences in achievement motivation with the Implicit Association Test
Brunstein, J. C., & Schmitt, C. H. (2004) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2004.01.003 · Cited by 107
Contingencies of Self-Worth, Academic Failure, and Goal Pursuit
Park, L. E., Crocker, J., & Kiefer, A. K. (2007) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167207305538 · Cited by 106
“Greenwald and Farnham (2000) developed the first self-esteem IAT using the categories of self versus other paired with pleasant versus unpleasant words.”
MethodIndirect Assessment of Cognitions of Child Sexual Abusers With the Implicit Association Test
Nunes, K. L., Firestone, P., & Baldwin, M. W. (2007) · Criminal Justice and Behavior · doi:10.1177/0093854806291703 · Cited by 104
“In addition, the IAT appears relatively uncontaminated by social desirability or other deliberate attempts at dissimulation (Asendorpf et al., 2002; Greenwald et al., 2002; Greenwald & Farnham, 2000).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialPredictive Validity of IAT Aggressiveness in the Context of Provocation
Richetin, J., Richardson, D. R., & Mason, G. D. (2010) · Social Psychology · doi:10.1027/1864-9335/a000005 · Cited by 105
Self-esteem and passion for activities
Lafrenière, M. K., Bélanger, J. J., Sedikides, C., & Vallerand, R. J. (2011) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2011.04.017 · Cited by 106
“…negative link between implicit self-esteem and obsessive passion, not only build on the notion that the two types of self-esteem function differently (Greenwald & Banaji, 1995; Greenwald & Farnham, 2000; Rudolph et al., 2008), but they also uniquely establish passion as a correlate of self-esteem.”
BackgroundMethodKarpinski, A., Steinman, R. B., & Hilton, J. L. (2005) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167204273007 · Cited by 102
“…concerns may prevent people from report- ing their attitudes on explicit prejudice and self-esteem measures (Asendorpf, Banse, & Mücke, 2002; Greenwald et al., 1998; Greenwald & Farnham, 2000; Wittenbrink et al., 1997) and, as a result, implicit and explicit measures are less likely to correlate.”
BackgroundNarcissism and self-esteem: A nomological network analysis
Hyatt, C. S., Sleep, C. E., Lamkin, J., Maples‐Keller, J. L., Sedikides, C., Campbell, W. K., & Miller, J. D. (2018) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0201088 · Cited by 123
Steffens, M. C., & Buchner, A. (2003) · Experimental Psychology (formerly Zeitschrift für Experimentelle Psychologie) · doi:10.1027//1618-3169.50.1.33 · Cited by 101
Dynamics of Identity: Between Self-Enhancement and Self-Assessment
Gregg, A. P., Sedikides, C., & Gebauer, J. E. (2011) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-7988-9_14 · Cited by 103
“Moreover, by capitalizing upon this Midas-like effect, indirect measures of self-esteem can be devised, key among them being the Name Letter Task (Koole & DeHart, 2007) and the Implicit Association Test (Greenwald & Farnham, 2000).”
MethodDoes the Implicit Association Test for assessing anxiety measure trait and state variance?
Schmukle, S. C., & Egloff, B. (2004) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1002/per.525 · Cited by 105
Math = male, me = female, therefore math ≠ me.
Nosek, B. A., Banaji, M. R., & Greenwald, A. G. (2002) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.83.1.44 · Cited by 99
Self-citationNon-conscious processes and dual-process theories in health psychology
Hagger, M. S. (2016) · Health Psychology Review · doi:10.1080/17437199.2016.1244647 · Cited by 103
“Measures such as the implicit association test (Greenwald & Farnham, 2000) and research using neuroscientific methods to explore brain function and social action (Heatherton & Wagner, 2011) have all contributed the proliferation of research into non-conscious determinants of action and the…”
“How much do you like your name?” An implicit measure of global self-esteem
Gebauer, J. E., Riketta, M., Broemer, P., & Maio, G. R. (2008) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2008.03.016 · Cited by 105
“Study 6 Explicit measures of self-esteem have been shown to relate the impression management component of socially desirable responding in particular (e.g., Greenwald & Farnham, 2000; Riketta, 2004).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluential
Metadata
- Authors
- Greenwald, A. G., & Farnham, S. D.
- Affiliations
- University of Washington (US)
- Venue
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
- Published
- 2000-12
- Volume
- 79
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 1022-1038
- ISSN
- 0022-3514 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1315
- OpenAlex
- W4231600766
- Cited by
- 1,393
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 10 · 2025: 22 · 2024: 33 · 2023: 34 · 2022: 46 · 2021: 67 · 2020: 85 · 2019: 56 · 2018: 62 · 2017: 56 · 2016: 93 · 2015: 65 · 2014: 71 · 2013: 71 · 2012: 79
- FWCI
- 85.23
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health (K05MH001533, R01MH041328, MH-57672, MH41328, MH01533, R01MH057672)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Psychological Testing and Assessment
- Keywords
- Implicit Association Test, self-esteem, self-concept, implicit attitudes
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Female, Humans, Internal-External Control, Male, Microcomputers, Personality Inventory, Psychometrics, Self Concept, Software, Word Association Tests, Reproducibility of Results
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