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Using the implicit association test to measure self-esteem and self-concept
Abstract
Experiment 1 used the Implicit Association Test (IAT; A. G. Greenwald, D. E. McGhee, & J. L. K. Schwartz, 1998) to measure self-esteem by assessing automatic associations of self with positive or negative valence. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) showed that two IAT measures defined a factor that was distinct from, but weakly correlated with, a factor defined by standard explicit (self-report) measures of self-esteem. Experiment 2 tested known-groups validity of two IAT gender self-concept measures. Compared with well-established explicit measures, the IAT measures revealed triple the difference in measured masculinity-femininity between men and women. Again, CFA revealed construct divergence between implicit and explicit measures. Experiment 3 assessed the self-esteem IAT's validity in predicting cognitive reactions to success and failure. High implicit self-esteem was associated in the predicted fashion with buffering against adverse effects of failure on two of four measures.
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“Similar tendencies have been demonstrated previously, wherein adults displayed faster response times when associating the self with positive attributes (34).”
From Development of self-protective biases in response to social evaluative feedback (2017) · cites this paper as [34]
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Cicero, D. C., & Kerns, J. G. (2011) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2011.02.002 · Cited by 24
“Implicit self-esteem was measured with the self-esteem Implicit Association Test (IAT; Greenwald & Farnham, 2000).”
MethodZeigler‐Hill, V., Jordan, C., & Cameron, J. J. (2013) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/obo/9780199828340-0124 · Cited by 39
Health of the Implicit Association Test at Age 3Preprint
Greenwald, A. G., & Nosek, B. A. (2016) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/sv8bv · Cited by 23
Self-citationQuirin, M., & Kühl, J. (2018) · Journal of Individual Differences · doi:10.1027/1614-0001/a000244 · Cited by 25
“The association between self-access and self-esteem, r(61) = .55, p < .001, fits with the notion that intuitive self-representations have a positivity bias (e.g., Greenwald & Farnham, 2000; Koole et al., 2001).”
BackgroundInfluentialReisenzein, R., Hildebrandt, A., & Weber, H. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108264822.009 · Cited by 26
Forehand, M., Perkins, A. W., & Reed, A. (2010) · Journal of Consumer Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jcps.2010.09.003 · Cited by 23
“…were prompted by explicit, deliberative cognition or by implicit, automatic cognition (Bargh, Chaiken, Govender, & Pratto, 1992; Fazio, Sanbonmatsu, Powell, & Kardes, 1986; Greenwald & Banaji, 1995; Greenwald & Farnham, 2000; Perkins, Forehand, & Greenwald, 2006; Rudman, Greenwald, & McGhee, 2001).”
Yang, J., Dedovic, K., Guan, L., Chen, Y., & Qi, M. (2014) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nst181 · Cited by 23
Fabre, E. F., Causse, M., Pesciarelli, F., & Cacciari, C. (2016) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00012 · Cited by 23
“…beliefs – i.e., a form of social knowledge linked to actions, attitudes, rules and other forms of knowledge attributed to individuals based on their biological gender (Greenwald and Farnham, 2000; Wheeler and Petty, 2001; Quadflieg and Macrae, 2011) – modulate economic decision-making.”
Predicting Self–Confident Behaviour with Implicit and Explicit Self–Esteem Measures
Krause, S., Back, M. D., Egloff, B., & Schmukle, S. C. (2016) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1002/per.2076 · Cited by 27
“…the present study, we aimed to compare the predictive power of the three most prominent classes of ISE measures —the Implicit Association Test (IAT; Greenwald & Farnham, 2000), the name-letter task (NLT; Kitayama & Karasawa, 1997), and the affective priming task (APT; Krause, Back, Egloff, &…”
BackgroundMethodNegative associations of frozen compared with fresh vegetables
Connell, P. M., Finkelstein, S. R., Scott, M. L., & Vallen, B. (2018) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2018.05.134 · Cited by 24
Ramsey, L. R., & Sekaquaptewa, D. (2010) · Social Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/s11218-010-9150-y · Cited by 23
Loving, Hating, Vacillating: Agreeableness, Implicit Self‐Esteem, and Neurotic Conflict
Robinson, M. D., & Wilkowski, B. M. (2006) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2006.00399.x · Cited by 24
On the Cognitive (In)Efficiency of Social Comparisons with Media Images
Want, S. C., Botres, A., Vahedi, Z., & Middleton, J. A. (2015) · Sex Roles · doi:10.1007/s11199-015-0538-1 · Cited by 17
“Future research might attempt to examine whether or not cognitively busy participants who view media images incur detrimental effects on these measures, or one of the more well-validated measures of implicit selfesteem such as the IAT (Greenwald & Farnham, 2000).”
BackgroundMarissen, M. A. E., Brouwer, M. E., Hiemstra, A. M. F., Deen, M. L., & Franken, I. H. A. (2016) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2016.04.070 · Cited by 23
The self-concept life cycle and brand perceptions: An interdisciplinary perspective
González‐Jiménez, H. (2017) · AMS Review · doi:10.1007/s13162-017-0092-9 · Cited by 27
“Young adults (undergraduate students) Sex-role stereotypes Greenwald and Farnham (2000) Offers evidence of the psychometric properties of self-esteem and gender self-concept measures using the implicit association test.”
BackgroundSymptoms of depression and the discrepancy between implicit and explicit self-esteem.
Kim, H., & Moore, M. T. (2019) · Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2018.12.001 · Cited by 21
The When and How of Evaluative Readiness: A Social Cognitive Neuroscience Perspective
Ferguson, M. J., & Wojnowicz, M. (2011) · Social and Personality Psychology Compass · doi:10.1111/j.1751-9004.2011.00393.x · Cited by 22
A portable version of the go/no-go association task (GNAT)
Bassett, J. F., & Dabbs, J. M. (2005) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/bf03192721 · Cited by 22
“…phenomena including prejudice (Greenwald et al., 1998), sexism (Rudman & Kilianski, 2000), romantic fantasies (Rudman & Heppen, 2003), spider phobia (de Jong, van den Hout, Rietbroek, & Huijding, 2003), weight identity (Grover, Keel, & Mitchell, 2003), and self-esteem (Greenwald & Farnham, 2000).”
BackgroundContingent self-importance among pathological narcissists: Evidence from an implicit task
Fetterman, A. K., & Robinson, M. D. (2010) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2010.09.002 · Cited by 24
“The pronoun manipulation used in the present study, and the findings obtained, might seem to conflict with the implicit association literature (Greenwald & Farnham, 2000), but this conflict is more apparent than real.”
MethodGender Self-Stereotyping Is Context Dependent for Men But Not for Women
Casper, C., & Rothermund, K. (2012) · Basic and Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/01973533.2012.712014 · Cited by 22
“…evidence for this associative link between the self and stereotypic attributes of social categories to which a person belongs, such as gender (Greenwald & Farnham, 2000; Lun et al., 2009), age (Levy & Leifheit-Limson, 2009; Rothermund & Brandtstädter, 2003), or race (Chavous, Harris, Rivas,…”
BackgroundBanfield, J. F., van der Lugt, A., & Münte, T. F. (2006) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2006.02.017 · Cited by 21
“As these effects occur so early, they lend further support to the idea that attitude information can be automatically activated and can occur out of awareness (e.g., Fazio, 2001; Greenwald and Banaji, 1995; Greenwald and Farnham, 2000; Greenwald et al., 1998; Nosek and Banaji, 2001).”
BackgroundToo good to be cautious: High implicit self-esteem predicts self-reported dangerous mobile phone use
Lannoy, S., Chatard, A., Selimbegović, L., Tello, N., der Linden, M. V., Heeren, A., & Billieux, J. (2019) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2019.09.018 · Cited by 21
Intellectual humility: an old problem in a new psychological perspective
Bąk, W., Wójtowicz, B., & Kutnik, J. (2021) · Current Issues in Personality Psychology · doi:10.5114/cipp.2021.106999 · Cited by 26
Lying on the Dissection Table: Anatomizing Faked Responses
Röhner, J., Thoss, P., & Schütz, A. (2022) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/s13428-021-01770-8 · Cited by 25
“Self‑Esteem IAT This IAT (Greenwald & Farnham, 2000; Rudolph et al., 2006) included the target discrimination between self-relevant (e.g., I, mine) and non-self-relevant (e.g., they, their) words and the attribute discrimination between pleasant (e.g., joy, smile) and unpleasant words (e.g., disaster, war).”
BackgroundInfluentialImpact of multidisciplinary research on advancing anti-doping efforts
Petróczi, A., & Naughton, D. P. (2011) · International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics · doi:10.1080/19406940.2011.577083 · Cited by 21
“Implicit association test (IAT) procedure (Greenwald et al. 1998) has also been used to indirectly tap into self-esteem (Greenwald and Banaji 1995, Greenwald and Farnham 2000, Karpinski 2004).”
Method“We” are familiar but “It” is not: Ingroup pronouns trigger feelings of familiarity
Housley, M. K., Claypool, H. M., Garcia‐Marques, T., & Mackie, D. M. (2009) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2009.08.011 · Cited by 21
“Numerous pieces of evidence suggest that for most individuals, the self is positively valued (e.g., Greenwald & Banaji, 1995; Greenwald & Farnham, 2000).”
BackgroundAssessing Aggressiveness via Reaction Times Online
Bluemke, M., & Zumbach, J. (2012) · Cyberpsychology Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace · doi:10.5817/cp2012-1-5 · Cited by 21
Meagher, B. R. (2018) · Journal of Environmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jenvp.2017.12.007 · Cited by 21
A Latent Profile Analysis of Implicit and Explicit Cognitions Associated with Depression
Phillips, W. J., Hine, D. W., & Bhullar, N. (2011) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-011-9381-z · Cited by 21
“(2007) found a greater predictive contribution from implicit self-esteem assessed by the Implicit Association Task (Greenwald and Farnham 2000) toward future depression in the presence of life stress amongst undergraduates who scored highly on measures of explicit depressive cognitions.”
BackgroundThe Automaticity of Affective Reactions: Stimulus Valence, Arousal, and Lateral Spatial Attention
Robinson, M. D., & Compton, R. J. (2006) · Social Cognition · doi:10.1521/soco.2006.24.4.469 · Cited by 19
Direct and Indirect Assessment of Gender Role Identification
van Well, S., Kolk, A. M. M., & Oei, N. Y. L. (2007) · Sex Roles · doi:10.1007/s11199-007-9203-7 · Cited by 20
“Furthermore, based on the results of Greenwald and Farnham (2000), greater sex differences were expected on the indirect than on the direct gender role identification measures.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialPersonality and lexical decision times for evaluative words
Borkenau, P., Paelecke, M., & Yu, R. (2009) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1002/per.747 · Cited by 21
Connected to Birds but Not Bees: Valence Moderates Implicit Associations with Nature
Verges, M., & Duffy, S. (2009) · Environment and Behavior · doi:10.1177/0013916508330210 · Cited by 21
Implicit Association Tests of Attitudes Toward Persons With Disabilities
Thomas, A., Vaughn, E. D., Doyle, A., & Bubb, R. R. (2013) · The Journal of Experimental Education · doi:10.1080/00220973.2013.813357 · Cited by 21
“Much research has been conducted for IATs measuring attitudes toward such varied concepts as race (McConnell & Leibold, 2001), gender (Nosek, Banaji, & Greenwald, 2002), and selfesteem (Greenwald & Farnham, 2000).”
BackgroundWhat we say = what we think? How implicit beliefs shape nascent entrepreneurial behavior
Mai, R., & Dickel, P. (2021) · Journal of Small Business Management · doi:10.1080/00472778.2021.1956505 · Cited by 22
“The attribute stimuli have been applied and validated in prior research and were taken from the literature (self-concept IAT: e.g., Egloff & Schmukle, 2002; Greenwald & Farnham, 2000; attitude IAT: taken from the Berlin Affective Word List, Võ et al., 2009).”
MethodBrečić, R., Gorton, M., & Dario Cvencek, A. (2022) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2022.106094 · Cited by 22
Self-body recognition depends on implicit and explicit self-esteem
Richetin, J., Xaiz, A., Maravita, A., & Perugini, M. (2011) · Body Image · doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2011.11.002 · Cited by 24
Attitudes Toward Overweight Individuals Among Fitness Center Employees
Dimmock, J. A., Hallett, B. E., & Grove, R. J. (2009) · Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport · doi:10.1080/02701367.2009.10599603 · Cited by 20
“The IAT’s internal consistency is high (mean alpha = .76) (Teige, Schnabel, Banse & Asendorpf, 2004), and Greenwald and Farnham (2000) provided evidence that the IAT has psychometric properties of stability and validity that justify its use in research settings.”
BackgroundRelations between explicit and implicit self-esteem measures and self-presentation
Johnson, M. (2016) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2016.02.045 · Cited by 21
Lindgren, K. P., Ramirez, J. J., Namaky, N., Olin, C. C., & Teachman, B. A. (2016) · Addictive Behaviors Reports · doi:10.1016/j.abrep.2016.10.004 · Cited by 22
“…aswell as in other areas of psychology – that implicit and explicit measures of identity are reliable and robust predictors (see Back et al., 2009; Greenwald & Farnham, 2000; Lindgren et al., 2016d), we suspect that the weaker relationships observed here – including the implicit and explicit…”
BackgroundAgentic to the core? Facets of narcissism and positive implicit self-views in the agentic domain
Fatfouta, R., & Schröder–Abé, M. (2018) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2018.02.006 · Cited by 20
Dentale, F., Vecchione, M., Alessandri, G., & Barbaranelli, C. (2018) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-018-9889-4 · Cited by 20
Transcutaneous Vagus Nerve Stimulation Affects Implicit Spiritual Self-Representations
Finisguerra, A., Crescentini, C., & Urgesi, C. (2019) · Neuroscience · doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2019.05.059 · Cited by 22
Du, H., & Jonas, E. (2014) · Scandinavian Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/sjop.12175 · Cited by 19
Uhlmann, E. L., & Nosek, B. A. (2012) · Social Psychology · doi:10.1027/1864-9335/a000089 · Cited by 21
Self‐esteem as a source of evaluative conditioning
Zhang, H., & Chan, D. K. ‐. (2009) · European Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1002/ejsp.608 · Cited by 20
Second to fourth digit ratios and the implicit gender self-concept
Schmukle, S. C., Liesenfeld, S., Back, M. D., & Egloff, B. (2007) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2007.03.018 · Cited by 18
Betancourt, J. L., Alderson, R. M., Roberts, D. K., & Bullard, C. C. (2024) · Clinical Psychology Review · doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2024.102394 · Cited by 26
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“Implicit association task (IAT; [84] Here the valence version [63] is used (derived from the Inquisit task li-”
MethodThe effects of peer relational victimization on social cognition
Park, A., Jensen‐Campbell, L. A., & Miller, H. L. (2016) · Journal of Social and Personal Relationships · doi:10.1177/0265407516664418 · Cited by 24
“These cues may then trigger the victim/outcast schema in future social interactions (Greenwald & Farnham, 2000).”
BackgroundKim, J. J., Kim, K., & Hwang, J. (2019) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su11123285 · Cited by 19
“Self-enhancement is part of a more general self-orientationversus other-orientation [35], and it has emerged in a variety of ways, such as tendencies to recall information about successes rather than failures, tendencies to think of himself/herself as better than average, and tendencies to have stronger implicit assoc…”
BackgroundHaines, E. L., & Sumner, K. E. (2013) · Human Resource Management Review · doi:10.1016/j.hrmr.2012.12.004 · Cited by 19
Utilitarian and ontological variation in individualism-collectivism
Wagner, J. A. (2002) · Research in Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1016/s0191-3085(02)24009-5 · Cited by 18
Goldenberg, J. L., & Shackelford, T. I. (2005) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/13576500444000254 · Cited by 22
“…been found to occur on an implicit level as well—for example, people are more likely to associate the self with positive rather than negative words (Greenwald & Farnham, 2000) and even show more favorable reactions to letters that happen to appear in their own names (Hoorens & Nuttin, 1993;…”
BackgroundSelf-symbols as implicit motivators
Holland, R. W., Wennekers, A., Bijlstra, G., Jongenelen, M. M., & van Knippenberg, A. (2009) · Social Cognition · doi:10.1521/soco.2009.27.4.579 · Cited by 17
“However, although most individuals associate the self with positive affect, individual differences are usually obtained in the level of these positive self-associations (Greenwald & Farnham, 2000).”
BackgroundExplicit Rejection of an Implicit Dichotomy: Integrating Two Approaches to Assessing Dependency
Cogswell, A. (2008) · Journal of Personality Assessment · doi:10.1080/00223890701468584 · Cited by 19
“Greenwald and Farnham (2000) successfully adapted the IAT to derive meaningful indices of implicit self-esteem as well as implicit masculinity–femininity.”
MethodThe Implicit Association Test as a Measure of Sexual Interest
Gray, N. S., & Snowden, R. J. (2009) · doi:10.1002/9780470747551.ch5 · Cited by 19
Different Methods, Different Results
da Costa, L., & Remedios, R. (2013) · Journal of Mixed Methods Research · doi:10.1177/1558689813495977 · Cited by 18
“Clearly, although IATs have become an established research tool in fields such as stereotypes and prejudice (for a review, see Nosek, Greenwald, & Banaji, 2007) and self-esteem and self-concept (Greenwald & Farnham, 2000), their use in studying achievement goals is nascent.”
MethodTownend, G., & Brown, R. A. J. (2016) · International Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1016/j.ijer.2016.07.006 · Cited by 22
“Of note is that, for both ‘social contexts’ and ‘social practices’, neither gender nor age contributed although these are considered consequential by some of the literature (such as Greenwald and Farnham, 2000; Zeidner & Scheyler, 1999).”
BackgroundUsing the bogus pipeline to investigate grandiose narcissism
Brunell, A. B., & Fisher, T. D. (2014) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2014.05.015 · Cited by 18
A novel measure to assess self-discrimination in binge-eating disorder and obesity
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Gender Differences of Brain Activity in the Conflicts Based on Implicit Self-Esteem
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“Moreover, we did not find any significant correlation between the two scores in either group, in partial agreement with a previous study showing no significant gender difference and only weak correlation between two scores [50].”
ResultPredicting Dental Flossing Behavior: The Role of Implicit and Explicit Responses and Beliefs
Millar, M. (2011) · Basic and Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/01973533.2010.539949 · Cited by 17
“21 (Bosson, Swann, & Pennebaker, 2000 ; Greenwald & Farnham, 2000 ; Nosek, Banaji, & Greenwald, 2002 ).”
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The value of an implicit self-associative measure specific to core beliefs of depression
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Development of a Children’s IAT to Measure Bias Against the Elderly
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“…subconscious nature of attitudes, considerable research distinguishes between explicit and implicit evaluations of attitudes; and, the evidence suggests that they measure related but distinct constructs (e.g. Cunningham, Preacher, & Banaji, 2001; Greenwald & Farnham, 2000; Pantos & Perkins, 2013).”
BackgroundImplicit and explicit self-esteem in remitted depressed patients
Smeijers, D., Vrijsen, J. N., van Oostrom, I., Isaac, L., Speckens, A. E. M., Becker, E. S., & Rinck, M. (2016) · Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2016.10.006 · Cited by 18
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Cultural Computing and the Self Concept: Towards Unconscious Metamorphosis
Kooijmans, T., & Rauterberg, M. (2007) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-540-74873-1_21 · Cited by 18
“We used the IAT version that especially measures self-concept [8].”
BackgroundMethodPerceptions of Japanese and Canadian dental hygiene students towards their profession
Saitô, A., Tomita, C., Sato, Y., et al. (2009) · International Journal of Dental Hygiene · doi:10.1111/j.1601-5037.2009.00388.x · Cited by 18
Hogendoorn, S. M., Wolters, L. H., Vervoort, L., Prins, P. J. M., Boer, F., & de Haan, E. (2008) · Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2007.11.003 · Cited by 18
DOES SOCIAL DESIRABILITY INFLATE THE CORRELATION BETWEEN SELF-ESTEEM AND ANXIETY?
Riketta, M. (2004) · Psychological Reports · doi:10.2466/pr0.94.3c.1232-1234 · Cited by 19
The implicit sensory association test (ISAT): A measurement approach for sensory perception
Haase, J., & Wiedmann, K.-P. (2020) · Journal of Business Research · doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2019.12.005 · Cited by 13
Affective compatibility with the self modulates the self-prioritisation effect
Constable, M., Becker, M. L., Oh, Y.-I., & Knoblich, G. (2020) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699931.2020.1839383 · Cited by 19
Simon, J. B., Nail, P. R., Swindle, T., Bihm, E. M., & Joshi, K. (2016) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/15298868.2016.1232660 · Cited by 25
Effect of Self-awareness on Negative Affect Among Individuals with Discrepant Low Self-esteem
Cheng, C. M., Govorun, O., & Chartrand, T. L. (2011) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/15298868.2011.567022 · Cited by 17
“As a result, data from the practice blocks of the IAT were not recorded and were thus not used in calculating participants’ IAT scores.”
MethodInfluentialImplicit and explicit self-esteem discrepancies in people with psychogenic nonepileptic seizures
Dimaro, L. V., Roberts, N. A., Moghaddam, N. G., Dawson, D. L., Brown, I., & Reuber, M. (2015) · Epilepsy & Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.yebeh.2015.03.032 · Cited by 23
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Hypervigilance to self-threat: Further experimental evidence for the mask model of narcissism
Hardaker, M., Sedikides, C., & Tsakanikos, E. (2019) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/15298868.2019.1667862 · Cited by 17
“…Whitelands College, Holybourne Avenue, London SW15 4JD, UK © 2019 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group esteem (as assessed, for example, by the self-esteem Implicit Association Test; Greenwald & Farnham, 2000): Narcissists have high explicit, but low implicit, self-esteem.”
BackgroundImplicit Self-Esteem Decreases in Adolescence: A Cross-Sectional Study
Cai, H., Wu, M., Luo, Y. L. L., & Jing, Y. (2014) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0089988 · Cited by 22
“We assessed implicit self-esteem using IAT [3].”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialMcGregor, I., Nail, P. R., Kocalar, D., & Haji, R. (2013) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2013.05.007 · Cited by 17
“Implicitly assessed self-esteem taps experiential associations of self with positive versus negative categories (Greenwald & Farnham, 2000).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSchreiber, F., Neng, J. M. B., Heimlich, C., Witthöft, M., & Weck, F. (2014) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2014.07.004 · Cited by 19
Neural Manifestations of Implicit Self-Esteem: An ERP Study
Wu, L., Cai, H., Gu, R., Luo, Y., Zhang, J., Jing, Y., Shi, Y., & Ding, L. (2014) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0101837 · Cited by 21
Tracking the implicit self using event-related potentials
Egenolf, Y., Stein, M., Koenig, T. W., Holtforth, M. G., Dierks, T., & Caspar, F. (2013) · Cognitive Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience · doi:10.3758/s13415-013-0169-3 · Cited by 18
“The Implicit Association Test containing self-related stimuli (sIAT) has been developed for measuring biases in implicit self-evaluation (Greenwald & Farnham, 2000).”
InfluentialChen, J., Shui, Q., & Zhong, Y. (2015) · Frontiers in Human Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnhum.2015.00376 · Cited by 18
“, 2000 ; Greenwald and Farnham , 2000 ) .”
Persönlichkeitspsychologie: Stand und Perspektiven
Borkenau, P., Egloff, B., Eid, M., Hennig, J., Kersting, M., Neubauer, A. C., & Spinath, F. M. (2005) · Psychologische Rundschau · doi:10.1026/0033-3042.56.4.271 · Cited by 18
A Unified Theory of Implicit Attitudes, Stereotypes, Self-Esteem, and Self-ConceptPreprint
Greenwald, A. G., Banaji, M. R., Rudman, L. A., Farnham, S. D., Nosek, B. A., & Mellott, D. S. (2016) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/xgswc · Cited by 16
Self-citationThe Balanced Structure of Environmental Identity
Bruni, C. M., Schultz, P. W., & Woodcock, A. (2021) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su13158168 · Cited by 20
Kim, D.-Y., & Chen, Z. (2010) · Tourism Analysis · doi:10.3727/108354210x12801550666060 · Cited by 16
McWilliams, M. A., Nier, J. A., & Singer, J. A. (2012) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2012.09.014 · Cited by 17
Mattavelli, G. C., Zuglian, P., Dabroi, E., Gaslini, G., Clerici, M., & Papagno, C. (2015) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2015.01.014 · Cited by 16
“Self-related and others-related words, flowers and insects were the Italian translation of stimuli used in previous studies (Greenwald & Farnham, 2000; Greenwald et al., 1998).”
MethodDentale, F., Vecchione, M., Ghezzi, V., & Barbaranelli, C. (2016) · European Journal of Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1027/1015-5759/a000378 · Cited by 17
“A number of empirical studies have shown that IAT and self-report measures of the self-concept are: (1) weakly or not correlated (e.g., Greenwald & Farnham, 2000); (2) differently prone to faking effects (e.g., Vecchione, Dentale, Alessandri, & Barbaranelli, 2014); predictive of different types of…”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialCross-Cultural Differences Versus Universality in Cognitive Dissonance
Gawronski, B., Peters, K. R., & Strack, F. (2008) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-373694-9.00013-1 · Cited by 16
Prejudice Implicit Association Test Effects
Popa-Roch, M., & Delmas, F. (2010) · Zeitschrift für Psychologie · doi:10.1027/0044-3409/a000007 · Cited by 16
On the validity of implicit association measures of personality traits
Siers, B. P., & Christiansen, N. D. (2012) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2012.10.004 · Cited by 15
Bast, D. F., & Barnes‐Holmes, Y. (2014) · The Psychological Record · doi:10.1007/s40732-014-0100-5 · Cited by 16
“…al. 2003), and it has been used across a wide range of areas in psychological research, including forgiveness (Goldrin 2011), gender identity (e.g., Greenwald and Farnham 2000), ethnic identity (Devos and Banaji 2005), academic identity (Nosek et al. 2002), self-esteem (e.g., Yamaguchi et al.…”
BackgroundFujii, T., Sawaumi, T., & Aikawa, A. (2013) · IEICE Transactions on Fundamentals of Electronics Communications and Computer Sciences · doi:10.1587/transfun.e96.a.1768 · Cited by 16
“Originally IATs were used to understand self-esteem [7] and stereotypes [8].”
A New Reliable and Valid Tool for Measuring Implicit Self-Esteem
Krause, S., Back, M. D., Egloff, B., & Schmukle, S. C. (2011) · European Journal of Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1027/1015-5759/a000095 · Cited by 18
Choi, S., Liu, L., & Kim, D.-Y. (2015) · Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing · doi:10.1080/10548408.2014.923802 · Cited by 16
“It has been utilized to measure critical variables such as implicit attitude (Hong, Dengfeng, & Ye, 2006; Karpinski & Hilton, 2001), stereotypes (Puertas, Rodriguez-Bailon, & Moya, 2002), self-esteem (e.g., Greenwald & Farnham, 2000) and self-concept (Asendorpf, Banse, & Mücke, 2002).”
Method
Metadata
- Authors
- Greenwald, A. G., & Farnham, S. D.
- Affiliations
- University of Washington (US)
- Venue
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
- Published
- 2000-12
- Volume
- 79
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 1022-1038
- ISSN
- 0022-3514 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1315
- OpenAlex
- W4231600766
- Cited by
- 1,393
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 10 · 2025: 22 · 2024: 33 · 2023: 34 · 2022: 46 · 2021: 67 · 2020: 85 · 2019: 56 · 2018: 62 · 2017: 56 · 2016: 93 · 2015: 65 · 2014: 71 · 2013: 71 · 2012: 79
- FWCI
- 85.23
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health (K05MH001533, R01MH041328, MH-57672, MH41328, MH01533, R01MH057672)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Psychological Testing and Assessment
- Keywords
- Implicit Association Test, self-esteem, self-concept, implicit attitudes
- MeSH terms
- Adult, Female, Humans, Internal-External Control, Male, Microcomputers, Personality Inventory, Psychometrics, Self Concept, Software, Word Association Tests, Reproducibility of Results
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