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Is there universal recognition of emotion from facial expression? A review of the cross-cultural studies.
Abstract
Emotions are universally recognized from facial expressions--or so it has been claimed. To support that claim, research has been carried out in various modern cultures and in cultures relatively isolated from Western influence. A review of the methods used in that research raises questions of its ecological, convergent, and internal validity. Forced-choice response format, within-subject design, preselected photographs of posed facial expressions, and other features of method are each problematic. When they are altered, less supportive or nonsupportive results occur. When they are combined, these method factors may help to shape the results. Facial expressions and emotion labels are probably associated, but the association may vary with culture and is loose enough to be consistent with various alternative accounts, 8 of which are discussed.
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“Even critics of strong evolutionary accounts [31], [32] find that recognition of FEs of emotion are universally above chance and in many cases quite higher.”
From Survey on RGB, 3D, Thermal, and Multimodal Approaches for Facial Expression Recognition: History, Trends, and Affect-Related Applications (2016) · cites this paper as [31]
In the citing paper
“Recently, the problem of automatic face detection in an arbitrary scene has drawn great attention (e.g., see [74], [83], [85]).”
From Automatic analysis of facial expressions: the state of the art (2000) · cites this paper as [83]
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Facial correlates of emotional behaviour in the domestic cat (Felis catus)
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“Although freely available, the FACS method requires some pre-training and needs to be used with caution to avoid bias (e.g. Russell, 1994); accordingly the developers of the system hold a register of qualified users for quality control purposes.”
The impact of face masks on emotion recognition performance and perception of threat
Grahlow, M., Rupp, C. I., & Derntl, B. (2022) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0262840 · Cited by 112
“Fear, on the other hand, seems to be recognised less accurately than other basic emotions [9, 11].”
BackgroundThe Racial Digital Divide: Motivational, Affective, and Cognitive Correlates of Internet Use1
Jackson, L. A., Ervin, K. S., Gardner, P. D., & Schmitt, N. (2001) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2001.tb00162.x · Cited by 102
The Expression of Anger Across Cultures
Matsumoto, D., Yoo, S. H., & Chung, J. M. (2009) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-0-387-89676-2_8 · Cited by 110
Inducing and Measuring Emotion and Affect
Quigley, K. S., Lindquist, K. A., & Barrett, L. F. (2014) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511996481.014 · Cited by 115
The cross-race effect: Beyond recognition of faces in the laboratory.
Sporer, S. L. (2001) · Psychology Public Policy and Law · doi:10.1037//1076-8971.7.1.170 · Cited by 101
Accuracy of judging others’ traits and states: Comparing mean levels across tests
Hall, J. A., Andrzejewski, S. A., Murphy, N. A., Mast, M. S., & Feinstein, B. A. (2008) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2008.06.013 · Cited by 102
“In the field of interpersonal sensitivity measurement, Russell (1994) averaged the mean accuracy of decoding basic facial expressions of emotion across studies in order to examine accuracy as a function of the national origins of the perceivers.”
Mauss, I. B., Butler, E. A., Roberts, N. A., & Chu, A. T. (2009) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699930903122273 · Cited by 114
“Despite long-standing interest in cultural differences in emotions (Darwin, 1872/1998; Ekman, 1992; Mesquita, 2003; Russell, 1994), a number of pertinent questions remain.”
BackgroundMethodFrom facial expression to level of interest: a spatio-temporal approach
Yeasin, M., Bullot, B., & Sharma, R. K. (2004) · IEEE Computer Society Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition/Proceedings - IEEE Computer Society Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition/Proceedings · doi:10.1109/cvpr.2004.1315264 · Cited by 100
Camras, L. A., Meng, Z., Ujiie, T., Dharamsi, S., Miyake, K., Oster, H., Wang, L., Cruz, J. E., Murdoch, A., & Campos, J. J. (2002) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/1528-3542.2.2.179 · Cited by 101
Takagi, S., Hiramatsu, S., Tabei, K., & Tanaka, A. (2015) · Frontiers in Integrative Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnint.2015.00001 · Cited by 104
“The emotion perception from faces is generally easier than from voices (Ekman and Friesen, 1971; Ekman et al., 1982; Russell et al., 1989; Russell, 1994; Scherer, 2003).”
BackgroundTest battery for measuring the perception and recognition of facial expressions of emotion
Wilhelm, O., Hildebrandt, A., Manske, K., Schacht, A., & Sommer, W. (2014) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00404 · Cited by 112
Recognizing spontaneous facial expressions of emotion in a small-scale society of Papua New Guinea.
Crivelli, C., Russell, J. A., Jarillo, S., & Dols, J. M. F. (2016) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/emo0000236 · Cited by 105
Self-citationBarrett, L. F. (2022) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/amp0001054 · Cited by 118
“…ay be sh ar ed at no co st ,b ut an y re qu es ts to re us e th is co nt en t in pa rt or w ho le m us t go th ro ug h th e A m er ic an P sy ch ol og ic al A ss oc ia tio n. 3 For historical details, see Ekman et al. (1972), Gendron and Barrett (2017), Leys (2017, pp. 49–71), and Russell (1994).”
BackgroundInfluential
Metadata
- Authors
- Russell, J. A.
- Affiliations
- University of British Columbia (CA)
- Corresponding author
- Russell, James A.
- ORCID
- Russell, James A.
- Venue
- Psychological Bulletin
- Published
- 1994
- Volume
- 115
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 102-141
- ISSN
- 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1455
- OpenAlex
- W1975238145
- Cited by
- 1,640
- References
- 168
- Citations by year
- 2026: 39 · 2025: 49 · 2024: 58 · 2023: 73 · 2022: 76 · 2021: 77 · 2020: 65 · 2019: 107 · 2018: 80 · 2017: 78 · 2016: 82 · 2015: 72 · 2014: 67 · 2013: 77 · 2012: 66
- FWCI
- 12.66
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Face Recognition and Perception
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Cultural Differences and Values
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Emotion and Mood Recognition
- Keywords
- facial expressions, emotion recognition, universal emotions, cross-cultural comparison, within-subjects design, ecological validity, convergent validity, internal validity, emotion labels, cultural variation in emotion
- MeSH terms
- Cross-Cultural Comparison, Discrimination, Psychological, Emotions, Facial Expression, Humans, Judgment, Research Design, Visual Perception
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