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Is there universal recognition of emotion from facial expression? A review of the cross-cultural studies.
Abstract
Emotions are universally recognized from facial expressions--or so it has been claimed. To support that claim, research has been carried out in various modern cultures and in cultures relatively isolated from Western influence. A review of the methods used in that research raises questions of its ecological, convergent, and internal validity. Forced-choice response format, within-subject design, preselected photographs of posed facial expressions, and other features of method are each problematic. When they are altered, less supportive or nonsupportive results occur. When they are combined, these method factors may help to shape the results. Facial expressions and emotion labels are probably associated, but the association may vary with culture and is loose enough to be consistent with various alternative accounts, 8 of which are discussed.
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“Even critics of strong evolutionary accounts [31], [32] find that recognition of FEs of emotion are universally above chance and in many cases quite higher.”
From Survey on RGB, 3D, Thermal, and Multimodal Approaches for Facial Expression Recognition: History, Trends, and Affect-Related Applications (2016) · cites this paper as [31]
In the citing paper
“Recently, the problem of automatic face detection in an arbitrary scene has drawn great attention (e.g., see [74], [83], [85]).”
From Automatic analysis of facial expressions: the state of the art (2000) · cites this paper as [83]
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“Several of these samples were written up only in brief, resulting in omissions in reporting data and statistical analysis (Russell, 1994).”
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“Empirically, the commonly used withinsubjects design results in higher matching scores than does a between-subjects design (Russell, 1994).”
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“The inclusion of response options such as none of these is correct has been shown to ameliorate concerns about the traditional forced-choice response format (e.g., Russell, 1994 ) by reducing the likelihood that agreement on a particular response option is an artifact of the response format used (Frank & Stennett, 200…”
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“Ekman’s use of the snapshot method has been criticized for a variety of methodological and conceptual reasons (Fern andez-Dols & Ruiz-Belda, 1995; Fridlund, 1994; Russell, 1994), but this is not my concern here.”
MethodNeuromarketing empirical approaches and food choice: A systematic review
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“…more “accurate” at detecting the discrete emotional meaning of a facial action (e.g., a scowl) when asked to select the meaning from a list of words (e.g., “anger,” “disgust,” “fear,” “happiness,” “sadness”) than when they are asked to spontaneously generate the label themselves (Russell, 1994).”
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“This research followed the convention of using posed expressions with a high proportion of prototypical components, which has been a critique of prior investigations (e.g., Russell, 1994; Russell et al., 2003), and the findings should be further supported with naturalistic stimuli.”
BackgroundMethodThe ontogeny and significance of infants' facial expressions in the first 9 months of life.
Izard, C. E., Fantauzzo, C., Castle, J. M., Haynes, O. M., Rayias, M. F., & Putnam, P. H. (1995) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.31.6.997 · Cited by 180
Evidence and a computational explanation of cultural differences in facial expression recognition.
Dailey, M. N., Joyce, C. A., Lyons, M. J., Kamachi, M., Ishi, H., Gyoba, J., & Cottrell, G. W. (2010) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/a0020019 · Cited by 181
“A number of modern theories (Ekman, 1999a; Russell & Bullock, 1986; Scherer, 1992; Russell, 1994) attempt to account for these universals and culture-specific variations.”
BackgroundRecognizing emotions expressed by body pose: A biologically inspired neural model
Konrad Schindler, B., Gool, L. V., & de Gelder, B. (2008) · Neural Networks · doi:10.1016/j.neunet.2008.05.003 · Cited by 181
“[45,52]) researchers agree nowadays, is that the perception of emotion is at least to a certain degree categorical [63,18,34,36], meaning that a perceived expression”
BackgroundAutomatic Recognition of Non-Acted Affective Postures
Kleinsmith, A., Bianchi‐Berthouze, N., & Steed, A. J. (2011) · IEEE Transactions on Systems Man and Cybernetics Part B (Cybernetics) · doi:10.1109/tsmcb.2010.2103557 · Cited by 174
“Different from studies on facial expressions [40], where most of the errors are generally in discriminating between categories of the same valence, our results show a less clear pattern, as both arousal and valence appear to play an important role for this modality.”
BackgroundMethodResultWhat the face displays: Mapping 28 emotions conveyed by naturalistic expression.
Cowen, A., & Keltner, D. J. (2019) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/amp0000488 · Cited by 185
“The focus of past studies on posed expressions raises important questions about how often the 1,500 expressions we have studied occur in daily life (Matsumoto & Hwang, 2017; Russell, 1994).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialMaking Sense of Self-Conscious Emotion: Linking Theory of Mind and Emotion in Children With Autism.
Heerey, E. A., Keltner, D. J., & Capps, L. M. (2003) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/1528-3542.3.4.394 · Cited by 171
Psychological Antecedents of Risk-Taking Behavior in Construction
Tixier, A. J. ‐., Hallowell, M. R., Albert, A., Leaf Van Boven, A., & Kleiner, B. M. (2014) · Journal of Construction Engineering and Management · doi:10.1061/(asce)co.1943-7862.0000894 · Cited by 175
From Text to Thought: How Analyzing Language Can Advance Psychological Science
Jackson, J. C., Watts, J., List, J., Puryear, C., Drabble, R., & Lindquist, K. A. (2021) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/17456916211004899 · Cited by 203
Structure of the Basque emotion lexicon
Alonso‐Arbiol, I., Shaver, P. R., Fraley, R. C., Oronoz, B., Erdozia, E. U., & Urizar, R. (2006) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699930500405469 · Cited by 165
Darwin and emotion expression.
Heß, U., & Thibault, P. (2009) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/a0013386 · Cited by 165
“…in leading journals took issue with the methodology employed in the studies that found support for universality (e.g., Ekman, 1994; Izard, 1997; Russell, 1991, 1994, 1995), and social constructivist approaches to emotion emphasized differences in emotion vocabularies and disputed universality…”
Voice-only communication enhances empathic accuracy
Kraus, M. W. (2017) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/amp0000147 · Cited by 162
“Research on emotion recognition began with studies testing the hypothesis that people can recognize facial expressions of emotion cross-culturally (Ekman, 1989; Russell, 1994).”
BackgroundCross-cultural evidence that the nonverbal expression of pride is an automatic status signal.
Tracy, J. L., Shariff, A. F., Zhao, W., & Henrich, J. (2013) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: General · doi:10.1037/a0028412 · Cited by 163
“Of note, those researchers did not provide the option for participants to say " no emotion " or " other " ; the absence of these options likely inflated those prior results (Russell, 1994).”
Impaired recognition of negative facial emotions in patients with frontotemporal dementia
Fernandez‐Duque, D., & Black, S. E. (2005) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2005.01.005 · Cited by 174
Metadata
- Authors
- Russell, J. A.
- Affiliations
- University of British Columbia (CA)
- Corresponding author
- Russell, James A.
- ORCID
- Russell, James A.
- Venue
- Psychological Bulletin
- Published
- 1994
- Volume
- 115
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 102-141
- ISSN
- 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1455
- OpenAlex
- W1975238145
- Cited by
- 1,640
- References
- 168
- Citations by year
- 2026: 39 · 2025: 49 · 2024: 58 · 2023: 73 · 2022: 76 · 2021: 77 · 2020: 65 · 2019: 107 · 2018: 80 · 2017: 78 · 2016: 82 · 2015: 72 · 2014: 67 · 2013: 77 · 2012: 66
- FWCI
- 12.66
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Face Recognition and Perception
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Cultural Differences and Values
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Emotion and Mood Recognition
- Keywords
- facial expressions, emotion recognition, universal emotions, cross-cultural comparison, within-subjects design, ecological validity, convergent validity, internal validity, emotion labels, cultural variation in emotion
- MeSH terms
- Cross-Cultural Comparison, Discrimination, Psychological, Emotions, Facial Expression, Humans, Judgment, Research Design, Visual Perception
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