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Is there universal recognition of emotion from facial expression? A review of the cross-cultural studies.
Abstract
Emotions are universally recognized from facial expressions--or so it has been claimed. To support that claim, research has been carried out in various modern cultures and in cultures relatively isolated from Western influence. A review of the methods used in that research raises questions of its ecological, convergent, and internal validity. Forced-choice response format, within-subject design, preselected photographs of posed facial expressions, and other features of method are each problematic. When they are altered, less supportive or nonsupportive results occur. When they are combined, these method factors may help to shape the results. Facial expressions and emotion labels are probably associated, but the association may vary with culture and is loose enough to be consistent with various alternative accounts, 8 of which are discussed.
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“Even critics of strong evolutionary accounts [31], [32] find that recognition of FEs of emotion are universally above chance and in many cases quite higher.”
From Survey on RGB, 3D, Thermal, and Multimodal Approaches for Facial Expression Recognition: History, Trends, and Affect-Related Applications (2016) · cites this paper as [31]
In the citing paper
“Recently, the problem of automatic face detection in an arbitrary scene has drawn great attention (e.g., see [74], [83], [85]).”
From Automatic analysis of facial expressions: the state of the art (2000) · cites this paper as [83]
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reconstructing the past: a century of ideas about emotion in psychology
Gendron, M., & Feldman Barrett, L. (2009) · Emotion Review · doi:10.1177/1754073909338877 · Cited by 361
“He also observed that people are not good at correctly naming configurations of facial muscles when asked to freely label them, although they can match a word to a face with higher rates of accuracy (for a modern discussion, see Russell, 1994).”
BackgroundHaidt, J., & Keltner, D. J. (1999) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/026999399379267 · Cited by 383
The perception and categorisation of emotional stimuli: A review
Brosch, T., Pourtois, G., & Sander, D. (2009) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699930902975754 · Cited by 412
“Results on the categorisation of emotional expression have provoked a great amount of debate (see, e.g., Ekman, 1994; Izard, 1994; Russell, 1994, 1995).”
BackgroundPerceptual Cues in Nonverbal Vocal Expressions of Emotion
Sauter, D. A., Eisner, F., Calder, A. J., & Scott, S. K. (2010) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1080/17470211003721642 · Cited by 380
“Further work will also be able to establish the extent to which these expressions are recognized in non-Western cultures, as has been investigated for facial cues (Ekman, 1994; Ekman et al., 1969; Elfenbein & Ambady, 2002; Russell, 1994).”
Recognizing Emotions in a Foreign Language
Pell, M. D., Monetta, L., Paulmann, S., & Kotz, S. A. (2009) · Journal of Nonverbal Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10919-008-0065-7 · Cited by 367
“face; this work demonstrates that individuals from different cultural backgrounds (e.g., Western/non-Western; literate/pre-literate) recognize basic emotions at levels well exceeding chance when presented in a forced-choice response format (see Russell 1994 for a detailed discussion of this literature).”
BackgroundUniversals and cultural variations in 22 emotional expressions across five cultures.
Cordaro, D. T., Sun, R., Keltner, D., Kamble, S., Huddar, N., & McNeil, G. (2018) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/emo0000302 · Cited by 343
Hess, U., Blairy, S., & Kleck, R. E. (2000) · Journal of Nonverbal Behavior · doi:10.1023/a:1006623213355 · Cited by 340
Metadata
- Authors
- Russell, J. A.
- Affiliations
- University of British Columbia (CA)
- Corresponding author
- Russell, James A.
- ORCID
- Russell, James A.
- Venue
- Psychological Bulletin
- Published
- 1994
- Volume
- 115
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 102-141
- ISSN
- 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1455
- OpenAlex
- W1975238145
- Cited by
- 1,640
- References
- 168
- Citations by year
- 2026: 39 · 2025: 49 · 2024: 58 · 2023: 73 · 2022: 76 · 2021: 77 · 2020: 65 · 2019: 107 · 2018: 80 · 2017: 78 · 2016: 82 · 2015: 72 · 2014: 67 · 2013: 77 · 2012: 66
- FWCI
- 12.66
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Face Recognition and Perception
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Cultural Differences and Values
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Emotion and Mood Recognition
- Keywords
- facial expressions, emotion recognition, universal emotions, cross-cultural comparison, within-subjects design, ecological validity, convergent validity, internal validity, emotion labels, cultural variation in emotion
- MeSH terms
- Cross-Cultural Comparison, Discrimination, Psychological, Emotions, Facial Expression, Humans, Judgment, Research Design, Visual Perception
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