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Is there universal recognition of emotion from facial expression? A review of the cross-cultural studies.
Abstract
Emotions are universally recognized from facial expressions--or so it has been claimed. To support that claim, research has been carried out in various modern cultures and in cultures relatively isolated from Western influence. A review of the methods used in that research raises questions of its ecological, convergent, and internal validity. Forced-choice response format, within-subject design, preselected photographs of posed facial expressions, and other features of method are each problematic. When they are altered, less supportive or nonsupportive results occur. When they are combined, these method factors may help to shape the results. Facial expressions and emotion labels are probably associated, but the association may vary with culture and is loose enough to be consistent with various alternative accounts, 8 of which are discussed.
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“Even critics of strong evolutionary accounts [31], [32] find that recognition of FEs of emotion are universally above chance and in many cases quite higher.”
From Survey on RGB, 3D, Thermal, and Multimodal Approaches for Facial Expression Recognition: History, Trends, and Affect-Related Applications (2016) · cites this paper as [31]
In the citing paper
“Recently, the problem of automatic face detection in an arbitrary scene has drawn great attention (e.g., see [74], [83], [85]).”
From Automatic analysis of facial expressions: the state of the art (2000) · cites this paper as [83]
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ResultPhysiological Response Measurements
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“…were selected from a small, culturally homogeneous population and the gender ratio was not controlled, studies have suggested that culture (Russell, 1994; Hess et al., 2000; Mandal and Ambady, 2004) and gender (Hess et al., 2000; Mussel et al., 2014) influence the expression and…”
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“Our results are globally consistent with previous findings with static pictures of human facial expressions (Russell, 1994) with high recognition rates for sadness, anger, surprise, and some confusion between disgust and anger.”
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Jupe, L. M., Leal, S., Vrij, A., & Nahari, G. (2017) · Psychology Crime and Law · doi:10.1080/1068316x.2017.1327584 · Cited by 35
“…exist in non-verbal behaviour (e.g. Cheng & Broadhurst, 2005), speech (Samovar, Porter, McDaniel, & Roy, 2015; Taylor, Larner, Conchie, & van der Zee, S, 2015; Warmelink, Vrij, Mann, Jundi, & Granhag, 1985), basic human values (Schwartz et al., 2001) and facial expression (Russell, 1994).”
Oxytocin and Facial Emotion Recognition
Ellenbogen, M. A. (2017) · Current topics in behavioral neurosciences · doi:10.1007/7854_2017_20 · Cited by 34
Context facilitates performance on a classic cross-cultural emotion perception task.
Hoemann, K., Crittenden, A. N., Mangola, S. M., Liu, Q., Li, C., Roberson, D. D., Ruark, G. A., Gendron, M., & Barrett, L. F. (2018) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/emo0000501 · Cited by 35
Development and Standardization of Extended ChaeLee Korean Facial Expressions of Emotions
Lee, K., Kim, J., Yeon, B., Kim, S., & Chae, J. (2013) · Psychiatry Investigation · doi:10.4306/pi.2013.10.2.155 · Cited by 33
Context effects on the judgment of basic emotions in the face
Tanaka‐Matsumi, J., Attivissimo, D. A., Nelson, S., & D'Urso, T. (1995) · Motivation and Emotion · doi:10.1007/bf02250567 · Cited by 33
Measuring the speed of recognising facially expressed emotions
Hildebrandt, A., Schacht, A., Sommer, W., & Wilhelm, O. (2012) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699931.2011.602046 · Cited by 33
“Although not undisputed (e.g., Hess & Thibault, 2009; Russell, 1994), crosscultural studies designed to investigate the universality of emotion expressions strongly supported high accuracy levels for recognising so-called basic emotions (Izard, 1971).”
BackgroundCategorical and Dimensional Decoding of Emotional Intonations in Patients with Focal Brain Lesions
Peper, M., & Irle, E. (1997) · Brain and Language · doi:10.1006/brln.1997.1789 · Cited by 33
The Decoding of Emotional Concepts in Patients with Focal Cerebral Lesions
Peper, M., & Irle, E. (1997) · Brain and Cognition · doi:10.1006/brcg.1997.0913 · Cited by 33
Wolf, K., Raedler, T. J., Henke, K. B., Kiefer, F., Maß, R., Quante, M., & Wiedemann, K. (2005) · Pain Research and Management · doi:10.1155/2005/643075 · Cited by 33
Culture, Emotion, and Expression
Matsumoto, D., & Hwang, H. C. (2019) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781119519348.ch24 · Cited by 35
Extending emotion science to the study of discrete emotions in infants
Izard, C. E., Woodburn, E. M., & Finlon, K. J. (2010) · Emotion Review · doi:10.1177/1754073909355003 · Cited by 32
“The results of such studies are controversial even with adult expressions and participants (Russell, 1994; cf., Shweder, 1993).”
ResultCulture and biology in emotional development
Fischer, K. W., Wang, L., Kennedy, B. P., & Cheng, C. (1998) · New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development · doi:10.1002/cd.23219988004 · Cited by 32
Du, S., & Martı́nez, A. M. (2013) · Journal of Vision · doi:10.1167/13.4.13 · Cited by 32
Genetic algorithms reveal profound individual differences in emotion recognition
Binetti, N., Roubtsova, N. S., Carlisi, C. O., Cosker, D. P., Viding, E. M., & Mareschal, I. (2022) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.2201380119 · Cited by 36
Selective attention modulates high-frequency activity in the face-processing network
Müsch, K., Hamamé, C. M., Perrone‐Bertolotti, M., Minotti, L., Kahane, P., Engel, A. K., Lachaux, J.-P., & Schneider, T. R. (2014) · Cortex · doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2014.06.006 · Cited by 35
“Therefore, happy facial expressions were chosen as targets because they yield higher recognition scores than any other facial expression (Russell, 1994).”
Cross-Cultural Patterns in Dynamic Ratings of Positive and Negative Natural Emotional Behaviour
Sneddon, I., McKeown, G. J., McRorie, M., & Vukicevic, T. (2011) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0014679 · Cited by 32
“In a critique of the universal recognition hypothesis Russell [17] suggested that agreement on dimensions such as valence and arousal may be universal, but that recognition of more discrete categories of emotion such as happiness or anger may be culture specific.”
BackgroundInfluentialDeficits in Facial Emotion Recognition in Schizophrenia: A Replication Study with Korean Subjects
Lee, S. J., Lee, H., Kweon, Y., Lee, C. T., & Lee, K. (2010) · Psychiatry Investigation · doi:10.4306/pi.2010.7.4.291 · Cited by 32
Metadata
- Authors
- Russell, J. A.
- Affiliations
- University of British Columbia (CA)
- Corresponding author
- Russell, James A.
- ORCID
- Russell, James A.
- Venue
- Psychological Bulletin
- Published
- 1994
- Volume
- 115
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 102-141
- ISSN
- 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1455
- OpenAlex
- W1975238145
- Cited by
- 1,640
- References
- 168
- Citations by year
- 2026: 39 · 2025: 49 · 2024: 58 · 2023: 73 · 2022: 76 · 2021: 77 · 2020: 65 · 2019: 107 · 2018: 80 · 2017: 78 · 2016: 82 · 2015: 72 · 2014: 67 · 2013: 77 · 2012: 66
- FWCI
- 12.66
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Face Recognition and Perception
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Cultural Differences and Values
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Artificial Intelligence › Emotion and Mood Recognition
- Keywords
- facial expressions, emotion recognition, universal emotions, cross-cultural comparison, within-subjects design, ecological validity, convergent validity, internal validity, emotion labels, cultural variation in emotion
- MeSH terms
- Cross-Cultural Comparison, Discrimination, Psychological, Emotions, Facial Expression, Humans, Judgment, Research Design, Visual Perception
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