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Mental contamination and mental correction: Unwanted influences on judgments and evaluations.
Abstract
We define mental contamination as the process whereby a person has an unwanted response because of mental processing that is unconscious or uncontrollable. This type of bias is distinguishable from the failure to know or apply normative rules of inference and can be further divided into the unwanted consequences of automatic processing and source confusion, which is the confusion of 2 or more causes of a response. Mental contamination is difficult to avoid because it results from both fundamental properties of human cognition (e.g., a lack of awareness of mental processes) and faulty lay beliefs about the mind (e.g., incorrect theories about mental biases). People's lay beliefs determine the steps they take (or fail to take) to correct their judgments and thus are an important but neglected source of biased responses. Strategies for avoiding contamination, such as controlling one's exposure to biasing information, are discussed.
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“the extent to which people have introspective access to psychological processes has been disputed”
From Unawareness of Attitudes, Their Environmental Causes, and Their Behavioral Effects (2025) · cites this paper as Wilson & Brekke 1994
In the citing paper
“The cognitive processes that engender psychological biases are thought to be nonconscious and, as such, inaccessible to introspection (Wilson & Brekke, 1994; Wilson et al., 2002).”
From Everyone I Don’t Like Is Biased: Affective Evaluations and the Bias Blind Spot (2026) · cites this paper as Wilson & Brekke, 1994
In the citing paper
“Given that the cognitive processes that produce many psychological biases are inaccessible to introspection (Wilson & Brekke, 1994; Wilson et al., 2002)”
From Everyone I Don’t Like Is Biased: Affective Evaluations and the Bias Blind Spot (2026) · cites this paper as Wilson & Brekke, 1994
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“This is indicative of a calculative mindset (Hsee and Rottenstreich, 2004; Pham, 1998, 2004; Schwarz and Clore, 1996) and consistent with the dual process models in social psychology (Wilson and Brekke, 1994; Chaiken and Trope, 1999), which outlines how consumers can inhibit their use of affect-as-information heuristi…”
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“Some psychologists define cognitive biases as the behavioural consequence of the unconscious, unintended use of mental shortcuts [149, 206].”
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“The broad literatures on debiasing and mental correction (Wilson & Brekke, 1994) as well as on “forewarning” effects in persuasion and their various limiting conditions (Wood & Quinn, 2003) suggest that this might be a fruitful direction for subsequent research.”
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“which makes them so difficult to address and remediate (18,19).”
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Kukucka, J., & Dror, I. E. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780197649138.013.36 · Cited by 45
Rosa, M., & Waldzus, S. (2012) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2011.12.004 · Cited by 20
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“Although constantly monitoring for bias is not an easy task (Croskerry 2009; Croskerry et al. 2013), several strategies exist to help minimize the effect of bias on decision-making (Wilson and Brekke 1994).”
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Bargh, J. A. (2021) · Consumer Psychology Review · doi:10.1002/arcp.1075 · Cited by 24
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“The different normative results observed across studies suggest that RT facilitation and behavioural choices can sometimes be dissociated from a processing perspective, a suggestion consistent with at least a handful of findings in the social-cognition (Dijksterhuis, Bargh, & Miedema, 2000 ; Hardin & Higgins, 1996 ; W…”
ResultDebiasing visual pilots' weather-related decision making
Walmsley, S., & Gilbey, A. (2017) · Applied Ergonomics · doi:10.1016/j.apergo.2017.06.019 · Cited by 19
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Clément-Guillotin, C., Cambon, L., Chalabaëv, A., et al. (2013) · European Review of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.erap.2012.12.004 · Cited by 19
“As shown by Wilson and Brekke 1994), awareness of bias is the first condition to prevent bias.”
BackgroundDisentangling Rheumatoid Arthritis Patients’ Implicit and Explicit Attitudes toward Methotrexate
Linn, A., Vandeberg, L., Wennekers, A., Vervloet, M., van Dijk, L., & van den Bemt, B. V. D. (2016) · Frontiers in Pharmacology · doi:10.3389/fphar.2016.00233 · Cited by 16
“Patients have less or no insight into these associative processes (Nisbett and Wilson, 1977; Wilson and Brekke, 1994).”
BackgroundBaskaran, S., Ayob, S. A., Howe, N. C., & Mahadi, N. B. (2017) · International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences · doi:10.6007/ijarbss/v7-i11/3496 · Cited by 19
“shortcut that an extrinsic factor represents as they are not able to evaluate intrinsic factor appropriately (Wilson and Brekke, 1994).”
BackgroundCategorizing the Social World: Affect, Motivation, and Self‐Regulation
Bodenhausen, G. V., Todd, A. R., & Becker, A. P. (2006) · The Psychology of learning and motivation/The psychology of learning and motivation · doi:10.1016/s0079-7421(06)47004-3 · Cited by 19
Claesson, K., Birgegård, A., & Sohlberg, S. (2007) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2007.00450.x · Cited by 19
Videotaped Confessions: Panacea or Pandora's Box?
Lassiter, G. D., Ratcliff, J. J., Ware, L. J., & Irvin, C. R. (2006) · Law & Policy · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9930.2006.00223.x · Cited by 19
Lay psychology of the hidden mental life: Attribution patterns of unconscious processes
Maor, O., & Leiser, D. (2013) · Consciousness and Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.concog.2012.12.007 · Cited by 18
Yair, O., & Sulitzeanu‐Kenan, R. (2014) · Political Behavior · doi:10.1007/s11109-014-9278-0 · Cited by 18
“These accusations, originating mostly on 2 For a review on the unconsciousness of many mental biases, see Wilson and Brekke (1994). the political right, allege that professors, typically from social sciences and humanities faculties, present left-leaning perspectives in the classroom, castigate…”
InfluentialSelf-Regulatory Aspects of Bullshitting and Bullshit Detection
Petrocelli, J. V., Watson, H. F., & Hirt, E. R. (2020) · Social Psychology · doi:10.1027/1864-9335/a000412 · Cited by 19
“…and motivation to protect against the potential contamination of bullshit is a relatively difficult task requiring selfregulatory resources (see Wilson & Brekke, 1994), thereby people should be less successful at detecting bullshit when their self-regulatory resources are relatively…”
BackgroundDrążkowski, D., Trepanowski, R., Chwiłkowska, P., & Majewska, M. (2020) · Social Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.32872/spb.4415 · Cited by 18
Understanding and Managing Bias
Kebbell, M. R., Muller, D., & MARTIN, K. (2010) · ANU Press eBooks · doi:10.22459/dupsc.05.2010.06 · Cited by 18
“However this will only work where the bias is actually controllable (Wilson & Brekke 1994).”
BackgroundInfluentialConflicts of Interest in Public Policy Research
MacCoun, R. J. (2005) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511610332.018 · Cited by 18
“persist in the face of education (Arkes, 1991; Wilson & Brekke, 1994 ), incentives for accuracy”
BackgroundSzeto, A. C. H., O’Neill, T., & Dobson, K. S. (2015) · American Journal of Psychiatric Rehabilitation · doi:10.1080/15487768.2015.1089799 · Cited by 22
“Finally, Wilson and Brekke (1994) have suggested that awareness of personal biases can reduce ‘‘mental contamination’’ (i.e., unwanted emotions, judgements, or behaviours as a function of uncontrollable or unconscious mental processes).”
BackgroundInfluentialFactors influencing recall of childhood sexual abuse
Rogers, M. L. (1995) · Journal of Traumatic Stress · doi:10.1007/bf02102895 · Cited by 18
Theory-Driven Reasoning about Plausible Pasts and Probable Futures in World Politics
Tetlock, P. E. (2002) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511808098.044 · Cited by 18
Metadata
- Authors
- Wilson, T. D., & Brekke, N.
- Affiliations
- University of Virginia (US)
- Venue
- Psychological Bulletin
- Published
- 1994
- Volume
- 116
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 117-142
- ISSN
- 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1455
- OpenAlex
- W2035370986
- Semantic Scholar
- 713d6a95d5409a9a7ffcd4ae4337078e4851ccf4
- Cited by
- 1,157
- References
- 171
- Citations by year
- 2026: 10 · 2025: 13 · 2024: 33 · 2023: 32 · 2022: 49 · 2021: 42 · 2020: 50 · 2019: 67 · 2018: 24 · 2017: 29 · 2016: 43 · 2015: 43 · 2014: 43 · 2013: 38 · 2012: 45
- FWCI
- 12.74
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (5r01mh041841-10)
- National Institute of Mental Health (MH41841)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › General Decision Sciences › Decision-Making and Behavioral Economics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Keywords
- mental contamination, judgment bias, automatic processing, source confusion, unconscious processes, metacognition
- MeSH terms
- Cognition, Humans, Judgment, Mental Processes
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