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Mental contamination and mental correction: Unwanted influences on judgments and evaluations.
Abstract
We define mental contamination as the process whereby a person has an unwanted response because of mental processing that is unconscious or uncontrollable. This type of bias is distinguishable from the failure to know or apply normative rules of inference and can be further divided into the unwanted consequences of automatic processing and source confusion, which is the confusion of 2 or more causes of a response. Mental contamination is difficult to avoid because it results from both fundamental properties of human cognition (e.g., a lack of awareness of mental processes) and faulty lay beliefs about the mind (e.g., incorrect theories about mental biases). People's lay beliefs determine the steps they take (or fail to take) to correct their judgments and thus are an important but neglected source of biased responses. Strategies for avoiding contamination, such as controlling one's exposure to biasing information, are discussed.
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“the extent to which people have introspective access to psychological processes has been disputed”
From Unawareness of Attitudes, Their Environmental Causes, and Their Behavioral Effects (2025) · cites this paper as Wilson & Brekke 1994
In the citing paper
“The cognitive processes that engender psychological biases are thought to be nonconscious and, as such, inaccessible to introspection (Wilson & Brekke, 1994; Wilson et al., 2002).”
From Everyone I Don’t Like Is Biased: Affective Evaluations and the Bias Blind Spot (2026) · cites this paper as Wilson & Brekke, 1994
In the citing paper
“Given that the cognitive processes that produce many psychological biases are inaccessible to introspection (Wilson & Brekke, 1994; Wilson et al., 2002)”
From Everyone I Don’t Like Is Biased: Affective Evaluations and the Bias Blind Spot (2026) · cites this paper as Wilson & Brekke, 1994
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Putting Adjustment Back in the Anchoring and Adjustment Heuristic
Epley, N., & Gilovich, T. D. (2002) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511808098.009 · Cited by 52
Nasie, M., Bar-Tal, D., Pliskin, R., Nahhas, E., & Halperin, E. (2014) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167214551153 · Cited by 56
“The socio-psychological literature provides evidence that this method can be effective (e.g., Blair, 2001; Wegener & Petty, 1997; Wilson & Brekke, 1994).”
MethodEducated intuitions. Automaticity and rationality in moral judgement
Sauer, H. (2012) · Philosophical Explorations · doi:10.1080/13869795.2012.706822 · Cited by 51
“The influence of post hoc reflection on these mechanisms is well documented, especially in cases where people correct for socalled “mental contamination” (Wilson and Brekke 1994).”
BackgroundDilution and confirmation of probability judgments based on nondiagnostic evidence
Labella, C., & Koehler, D. J. (2004) · Memory & Cognition · doi:10.3758/bf03196883 · Cited by 49
The impact of prejudice screening procedures on racial bias in the courtroom.
Schuller, R. A., Kazoleas, V., & Kawakami, K. (2008) · Law and Human Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10979-008-9153-9 · Cited by 49
“And finally, even if people can admit to their possible biases, they may still not correct for their partiality if they lack the motivation or cognitive capacity to counteract these attitudes (Kawakami, Dovidio, Moll, Hermsen, & Russin, 2000; Kawakami, Dovidio, & Van Kamp, 2005, 2007; Wegener & Petty, 1997; Wilson & B…”
BackgroundThe disgust-promotes-disposal effect
Han, S., Lerner, J. S., & Zeckhauser, R. (2012) · Journal of Risk and Uncertainty · doi:10.1007/s11166-012-9139-3 · Cited by 57
The effects of temperature on service employees' customer orientation: an experimental approach
Kolb, P., Gockel, C., & Werth, L. (2012) · Ergonomics · doi:10.1080/00140139.2012.659763 · Cited by 48
“This means that people may be aware of a physical warmth/coldness experience (e.g. when they hold a warm vs. a cold drink); but they may not be aware of the effect this physical experience has psychologically (Bargh 1992, Wilson and Brekke 1994).”
BackgroundPsychological Processes Underlying Persuasion
Petty, R. E., & Briñol, P. (2008) · Diogenes · doi:10.1177/0392192107087917 · Cited by 48
CHAPTER 4 A Psychological Advantage for the Status Quo
Eidelman, S., & Crandall, C. S. (2009) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195320916.003.004 · Cited by 48
Cognitive Demands and Bias: Challenges Facing Clinical Competency Committees
Dickey, C. C., Thomas, C., Feroze, U., Nakshabandi, F., & Cannon, B. (2017) · Journal of Graduate Medical Education · doi:10.4300/jgme-d-16-00411.1 · Cited by 48
“Recognition of bias and motivation to change are key initial steps.(11) For CCC members, faculty development exercises may help raise awareness and build a shared vocabulary regarding bias (information provided as online supplemental material).”
BackgroundPeople use less information than they think to make up their minds
Klein, N., & O’Brien, E. (2018) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1805327115 · Cited by 53
Kardosh, R., Sklar, A. Y., Goldstein, A., Pertzov, Y., & Hassin, R. R. (2022) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.2116884119 · Cited by 48
When two wrongs can make a right: Regulatory nonfit, bias, and correction of judgments
Vaughn, L. A., O’Rourke, T., Schwartz, S. G., et al. (2005) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2005.09.004 · Cited by 48
On the Automatic Association Between America and Aggression for News Watchers
Ferguson, M. J., & Hassin, R. R. (2007) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167207307493 · Cited by 48
In defence of gullibility: the epistemology of testimony and the psychology of deception detection
Michaelian, K. (2009) · Synthese · doi:10.1007/s11229-009-9573-1 · Cited by 49
“But a review of the metamemory literature shows that their description is approximately correct: a monitoring process is in fact involved in the process of remembering; and this process is, moreover, a means of ensuring the reliability of remembering (Johnson and Raye 1981, 2000; Johnson 1988; Johnson et al. 1993; Mit…”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Wilson, T. D., & Brekke, N.
- Affiliations
- University of Virginia (US)
- Venue
- Psychological Bulletin
- Published
- 1994
- Volume
- 116
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 117-142
- ISSN
- 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1455
- OpenAlex
- W2035370986
- Semantic Scholar
- 713d6a95d5409a9a7ffcd4ae4337078e4851ccf4
- Cited by
- 1,157
- References
- 171
- Citations by year
- 2026: 10 · 2025: 13 · 2024: 33 · 2023: 32 · 2022: 49 · 2021: 42 · 2020: 50 · 2019: 67 · 2018: 24 · 2017: 29 · 2016: 43 · 2015: 43 · 2014: 43 · 2013: 38 · 2012: 45
- FWCI
- 12.74
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (5r01mh041841-10)
- National Institute of Mental Health (MH41841)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › General Decision Sciences › Decision-Making and Behavioral Economics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Keywords
- mental contamination, judgment bias, automatic processing, source confusion, unconscious processes, metacognition
- MeSH terms
- Cognition, Humans, Judgment, Mental Processes
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