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For better or worse: The impact of upward social comparison on self-evaluations

Collins, Rebecca L.·1996·Psychological Bulletin

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Abstract

Upward social comparison is generally regarded as ego deflating, yet people often compare themselves with those whose abilities and attributes are better than their own. Upward comparison provides useful information, which may partially account for this behavior. Furthermore, it is proposed that upw

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“Some researchers (Wills, 1981; Collins, 1996) suggest that when individuals compare themselves with others who are different from them, they obtain richer, more differentiated information regarding self-evaluations.”
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“Whether or not upward comparisons lead to enhanced or lowered selfevaluations depends on the expected similarity to the comparison target (Collins 1996).”
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“…point that social comparison may induce not only contrast effects but also assimilation effects and suggests that the positive effects of upward comparison, and the negative effects of downward comparison, may deserve more attention (cf. Collins, 1996; Diener & Fujita, 1997; Suls & Wheeler, 2000).”
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“of influence and respect (Anderson et al., 2012; Collins, 1996) and reducing hostility toward the coworker.”
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Background
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“On the other hand, it can be considered that classrooms with salient mastery goals are characterized by social comparison, as social comparison with others can also serve the goal of self-improvement (Collins, 1996, 2000).”
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“On the one hand, when a person inevitably draws social comparison with superior other and then envy is evoked (Collins 1996; Van de Ven et al.”
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“Because it is well-accepted that social comparisons have a strong bearing on self-enhancement (Collins, 1996; Hoorens, 1993; Wood et al., 1994), OST can be enriched by explicating the ways in which social comparisons operate with regard to POS.”
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Background
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“As such, upward social comparisons, which refer to the comparison with individuals who are evaluated superior, mostly result in lowered self-esteem and/or worsened mood 42 – 44 .”
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The Staircase to Terrorism
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“Several participants expressed hope when seeing success stories, an example of upward comparison that helped them visualize the possibility of improvement and thus potentially increased their desire to improve themselves to reach that same goal [70,71].”
Background
Wage comparisons with similar and dissimilar others
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“This approach builds upon prior models (e.g., Bogard, Delmas, Goldstein, & Vezich, 2020; Wood, 1989, 1996) and seeks to highlight the difference between who (target) and what (dimension) is being compared.”
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Background
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Background
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“It also accords with previous work that observed that people typically make attributions that are favourable to their self-concepts (Collins, 1996), and have a considerable capacity for resilience in the face of negative experiences (Suedfeld, 1997).”
Result
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Background
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“…of information valence on emotion based on social comparison theory (in H1a) was not supported, similar results (upward comparison yields positive influence and downward comparison yields negative influence) were not atypical when compared to previous literature (for a review, see Collins, 1996).”
BackgroundResultInfluential
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“Although engaging in an upward comparison has been shown to increase SWB by being a source of inspiration or optimism for the future (Collins, 1996; Taylor & Lobel, 1989), it can also decrease SWB through eliciting feelings of relative deprivation, envy, and inferiority (Crosby, 1976; Emmons &…”
Background
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“For example, regularly making upward comparisons that provide momentary anxiety or discouragement—but also provide useful information about how to improve—could lend itself to achieving high life satisfaction, well-being, and goal-directed behavior over time (Wood, 1989; Collins, 1996).”
Background
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“…making the comparison (Buunk & Gibbons, 2000).1 The consequences of downward and upward comparison may be positive or negative for those making the comparison and vary depending on the situation (Alicke, 2000; Buunk, Collins, Taylor, van Yperen, & Dakof, 1990; Collins, 1996, 2000; Smith, 2000).”
Background
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The mindlessness of social comparisons.
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Background
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“Social comparison has been used to manage negative affect (Aspinwall & Taylor, 1983) and to affiliate upward (Collins, 1996).”
Method
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Background
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“Research suggests that upward comparison provides information or knowledge that is helpful in the process of self-improvement [82].”
Background
Moral identity, moral self-efficacy, and moral elevation: A sequential mediation model predicting moral intentions and behaviour
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“This mirrors findings in social comparison literature, which describe how upward comparison can be either inspiring or threatening (Collins, 1996; see also Monin, 2007).”
Result
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“Social comparisons may lead to negative self-judgments (Collins, 1996; Horn & Harris, 2002; Weiss & Stuntz, 2004), a finding supported by the athletes’ claims that “good” players were those who were not punished, as they were performing and helping the team succeed; “bad” players were those who…”
Result
A neuroscience-based model of why and when CEO social values affect investments in corporate social responsibility
Boone, C., Buyl, T., Declerck, C. H., & Sajko, M. (2020) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2020.101386 · Cited by 50
The effects of social comparison on inaction inertia
Kumar, P. (2004) · Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes · doi:10.1016/j.obhdp.2004.06.004 · Cited by 50
Social Comparison
Crusius, J., Corcoran, K., & Mussweiler, T. (2022) · doi:10.1002/9781394266616.ch7 · Cited by 50
Biting the hand that feeds: A status-based model of when and why receiving help motivates social undermining.
Tai, K., Lin, K. J., Lam, C. K., & Liu, W. (2022) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/apl0000580 · Cited by 51
Depressive symptoms and upward social comparisons during Instagram use: A vicious circle
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“Such threats can emerge from various circumstances, including social comparisons with someone perceived as superior, receiving negative feed-back, or any situation that challenges one’s self-concept (Collins, 1996; Vohs & Heatherton, 2004).”
Increasing citizen science contribution using a virtual peer
Laut, J., Cappa, F., Nov, O., & Porfiri, M. (2016) · Journal of the Association for Information Science and Technology · doi:10.1002/asi.23685 · Cited by 49
“Comparing upward can, at times, act as a form of goal setting, where individuals compare their performance to one with superior performance in an effort to self-enhance (Collins, 1996; Johnson, 2012).”
Background
The impact of self-regulatory states and traits on Facebook use: Priming materialism and social comparisons
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A Diary Study of Self‐Compassion, Upward Social Comparisons, and Body Image‐Related Outcomes
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A different perspective on consumer engagement: exploring the experience of using health apps to support healthier food purchasing
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“In contrast, its absence may lead to cognitive dissonance and the perception that the product is unattainable or overly superior, leading to a distancing of the consumer as a means of resisting ego deflation (Collins, 1996; Festinger, 1957).”
Background
Ability evaluation by proxy: Role of maximal performance and related attributes in social comparison.
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No pain, no gain: The conditions under which upward comparisons lead to better performance.
Johnson, C. S., & Stapel, D. A. (2007) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.92.6.1051 · Cited by 50
“Psychologists have long sought to answer these questions and to understand the many reactions that individuals have to upward comparisons ( Collins, 1996; Wood, 1989).”
Background
Retracted
I am done with this! Women dropping out of engineering majors
González-Pérez, S., Martínez, M. M., Paredes, V. R., & Cifré, E. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.918439 · Cited by 53
“Role models have been shown by extensive prior literature to be critical in motivating students to follow a path and achieve goals (Collins, 1996; Lockwood and Kunda, 1997).”
Background
Envy Across Adulthood: The What and the Who
Henniger, N., & Harris, C. R. (2015) · Basic and Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/01973533.2015.1088440 · Cited by 41
“…relevant to the goal of self-improvement because they likely provide the most valuable information about possibilities for one’s own success (e.g., Collins, 1996; Suls, Martin, & Wheeler, 2002; Wheeler, Martin, & Suls, Correspondence should be sent to Christine R. Harris, Psychology Department,…”
Background
Affect Generated by Social Comparisons Among Nurses High and Low in Burnout1
Buunk, B. P., Ybema, J. F., van der Zee, K. I., Schaufeli, W. B., & Gibbons, F. X. (2001) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2001.tb02685.x · Cited by 47
Social Influence Dynamics in Aptitude Tasks
Quiamzade, A., & Mugny, G. (2001) · Social Psychology of Education · doi:10.1023/a:1011388821962 · Cited by 46
Inspirational or Self-Deflating: The Role of Self-Efficacy in Elite Role Model Effectiveness
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“Upward social comparisons with successful role models can fulfill a self-improvement motive, enhance people’s subjective well-being, and offer both inspiration and hope particularly when people focus on similarities with the role model (Collins, 1996, 2000; Wood, 1989).”
Background
The dark side of competitive psychological climate: exploring the role of workplace envy
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How Dispositional Optimists and Pessimists Evaluate their Past, Present and Anticipated Future Life Satisfaction: A Lifespan Approach
Busseri, M. A. (2012) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1002/per.1854 · Cited by 48
“Such findings suggest that in addition to temporal self-comparisons, social comparison processes (Collins, 1996; Wood, 1996) may also be relevant to understanding differences between dispositional optimists and pessimists.”
Background
Upward and downward social comparisons can decrease prosocial behavior
Yip, J. J., & Kelly, A. E. (2013) · Journal of Applied Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2013.01039.x · Cited by 46
“Thus, comparisons with superior others, although potentially damaging to self-esteem, can provide a goal to reach or even enhance self-esteem by acknowledging, then diminishing the distance between the self and the superior target (Collins, 1996; Wheeler, 1966).”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
When being worse helps: The influence of upward social comparisons and knowledge awareness on learner engagement and learning in peer-to-peer knowledge exchange
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The Predictive Utility of Reward-Based Motives Underlying Excessive and Problematic Social Networking Site Use
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“way of gaining inspiration on how to improve (Collins, 1996; Guyer & Vaughan-Johnston, 2018).”
Background
Perceived Self‐efficacy, Personal Goals, Social Comparison, and Scientific Productivity
Vrugt, A. J., & Koenis, S. (2002) · Applied Psychology · doi:10.1111/1464-0597.00110 · Cited by 51
Income Inequality, Social Comparison, and Happiness in the United States
Liao, T. F. (2021) · Socius Sociological Research for a Dynamic World · doi:10.1177/2378023120985648 · Cited by 45
“…have different origins: While upward social comparison relates to the motivations of both selfimprovement and self-enhancement, research suggests that the processes underlying downward social comparison are based only on self-enhancement motives (Collins 1996; Guyer and Vaughan-Johnson 2020).”
Background
Self-determination and the consequences of social comparison
Neighbors, C., & Knee, C. R. (2003) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/s0092-6566(03)00047-3 · Cited by 46
“In recent years, researchers have revealed that the consequences of social comparison cannot be inferred from direction alone and in fact ‘‘either direction has its ups and downs’’ (Buunk, Collins, Taylor, VanYperen, & Dakof, 1990; Collins, 1996).”
Background

Authors: Collins, R. L.
Affiliations: RAND Corporation (US)
Corresponding author: Collins, Rebecca L.
ORCID: Collins, Rebecca L.
Venue: Psychological Bulletin
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 1996-01
Volume: 119
Issue: 1
Pages: 51-69
ISSN: 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
1939-1455
DOI: 10.1037/0033-2909.119.1.51
OpenAlex: W2165368401
Cited by: 1,166
References: 93
Citations by year: 2026: 53 · 2025: 61 · 2024: 59 · 2023: 95 · 2022: 74 · 2021: 65 · 2020: 68 · 2019: 51 · 2018: 52 · 2017: 50 · 2016: 46 · 2015: 37 · 2014: 38 · 2013: 25 · 2012: 28
FWCI: 20.20
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Emotions and Moral Behavior
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
Keywords: upward social comparison, self-assessment, self-concept, social comparison theory

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For better or worse: The impact of upward social comparison on self-evaluations

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