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For better or worse: The impact of upward social comparison on self-evaluations
Abstract
Upward social comparison is generally regarded as ego deflating, yet people often compare themselves with those whose abilities and attributes are better than their own. Upward comparison provides useful information, which may partially account for this behavior. Furthermore, it is proposed that upw
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“Upward social comparison occurs when people compare themselves to those who are better off and although it often triggers negative self-evaluation, resentment, and envy, it can also be motivating and self-enhancing (Collins, 1996).”
From Relative Feedback Increases Disparities in Effort and Performance in Crowdsourcing Contests: Evidence from a Quasi-Experiment on Topcoder (2022) · cites this paper as Collins, 1996
In the citing paper
“Assimilative efforts, on the other side, involve the contrast of a bad present with an attainable positive future and may be enhanced by motivating upward comparisons (see also Carver & Scheier, 1998;Collins, 1996;Wood, 1996;Wrosch & Heckhausen, 1996).”
From The Life-Course Dynamics of Goal Pursuit and Goal Adjustment: A Two-Process Framework (2002) · cites this paper as Collins, 1996
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“Some targets are chosen to allow the individual to self-enhance (R. L. Collins, 1996; Wills, 1981), and others are chosen to gain information about one's standing (Festinger, 1954; Wood, 1989).”
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“According to a survey of the social comparison literature, we expect that consumers get a sense of precisely where they stand through their comparison to those directly above them (Collins 1996).”
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A Reflection and Evaluation Model of Comparative Thinking
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“Although people engage in both upward (unfavorable) and downward (favorable) comparisons, upward comparisons occur faster (Wood 1989) and arise by default for self-evaluation purposes (Collins 1996).”
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“contradiction hints at the possibility that a mix of opportunities for both upward and downward comparisons may be ideal for increasing motivation (Collins, 1996), and indicates the need for closer examinations of how the quality and content of social support and social interactions impact on intervention effectivenes…”
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“When individuals are motivated to self-improve, learn a new role, acquire new skills, or set goals, they may select social referents who inhabit these desired roles or exhibit these desired qualities (Collins 1996).”
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“Posavac, Posavac, and Posavac (1998) have argued that some women may be more negatively affected by exposure to idealized media portrayals because their appearance differs more greatly from those ideal portrayals (social comparison theory suggests that the greater the difference between oneself and the comparison stan…”
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“Perceiving oneself to be similar to another person leads to an assimilation of self-views to the characteristics displayed by that person (Brown, Novick, Lord, & Richards, 1992; Collins, 1996; Lockwood & Kunda, 1997; Mussweiler, 2003).”
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“The more people are ranked above oneself, the worse one feels (Collins 1996).”
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Culture and Social Comparison Seeking: The Role of Self-Motives
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“, Brickman & Bulman, 1977), or by seeking out certain upward social comparisons (Collins, 1996).”
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BackgroundResultInfluentialEffects of Exposure to Thin Media Images: Evidence of Self-Enhancement among Restrained Eaters
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“Assimilation Versus Contrast We use social comparisons to obtain self-knowledge by relating thoughts and behaviors to those around us (Collins, 1996; Festinger, 1954; Wood, 1989).”
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“, 1985), to manage negative affect (Aspinwall & Taylor, 1993; Wood, Giordano-Beech, & Ducharme, 1999), for self-enhancement (Wood, Giordano-Beech, Taylor, Michela, & Gaus, 1994), or to affiliate upward (Collins, 1996).”
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‘Seek and ye shall find’: antecedents of assimilation and contrast in social comparison
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“Several studies have supported the preference of upward comparisons (see review by Collins, 1996). In one study (Wheeler, 1966), participants completed a performance task and received false feedback with a list of other participants rank ordered by performance level. When permitted to view the score of one other parti…”
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New directions in social comparison research
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“Although these results provide strong basis for our own predictions (see also Buunk & Ybema, 1997; Collins, 1996), the “group” in these studies was based on a shared minimal group assignment.”
ResultDifferential social comparison processes in women with and without eating disorder symptoms.
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“According to Collins (1996), upward comparisons with idealized images such as those found in most advertisements should negatively influence esteem when one feels inferior to the target.”
BackgroundSocial comparison on Facebook: Its antecedents and psychological outcomes
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Chang, L., Li, P., Loh, R. S. M., & Chua, T. H. H. (2019) · Body Image · doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2019.03.005 · Cited by 151
When every day is a high school reunion: Social media comparisons and self-esteem.
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“In contrast, higher self-esteem individuals are generally adept at construing their own achievements as similar to those of superior others (Collins, 1996), resulting in either less extreme upward comparisons or fewer of them – and consequently less negative outcomes.”
BackgroundEffects of users’ envy and shame on social comparison that occurs on social network services
Lim, M., & Yang, Y. K. (2015) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2015.05.013 · Cited by 174
“The direction of comparison is often determined by a person’s objectives, which could either be self-enhancement or self-improvement (Collins, 1996; Wood, 1989).”
BackgroundCounterfactual thinking, persistence, and performance: A test of the Reflection and Evaluation Model
Markman, K. D., McMullen, M. N., & Elizaga, R. A. (2007) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2007.01.001 · Cited by 165
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“One reason social comparison has been such a vital area of research is that comparisons affect so many important mediators of behavior— such as self-esteem, judgments of fairness, and outcome and efficacy expectancies—that are distinct from and transcend the relationship with any particular…”
Holier than me? Threatening Social Comparison in the Moral Domain
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Mags and Abs: Media Consumption and Bodily Concerns in Men
Hatoum, I. J., & Belle, D. E. (2004) · Sex Roles · doi:10.1023/b:sers.0000049229.93256.48 · Cited by 161
“Social comparison processes, particularly the tendency to make upward social comparisons with those who have more beautiful and socially admired bodies, can lead to dissatisfaction and demoralization (Collins, 1996).”
BackgroundExperimental Analysis of Neighborhood Effects on YouthPreprint
Kling, J. R., & Liebman, J. B. (2004) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.600596 · Cited by 171
“depression, anxiety, and/or delinquency (Wood, 1989; Marsh and Parker, 1984; Collins, 1996).”
BackgroundDimensional comparisons: An experimental approach to the internal/external frame of reference model.
Møller, J., & Köller, O. (2001) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.93.4.826 · Cited by 159
A Selective History of Classic and Neo-Social Comparison Theory
Suls, J. M., & Wheeler, L. S. (2000) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4615-4237-7_1 · Cited by 154
Hot shots and cool reception? An expanded view of social consequences for high performers.
Campbell, E. M., Liao, H., Chuang, A., Zhou, J., & Dong, Y. (2017) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/apl0000183 · Cited by 155
Buunk, B. P., Lloréns, R. Z., Silla, J. M. P., Nauta, A., & Gosalvez, I. (2005) · Applied Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1464-0597.2005.00196.x · Cited by 151
Abstract and concrete self-evaluative goals.
Freitas, A. L., Salovey, P., & Liberman, N. (2001) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.80.3.410 · Cited by 151
Lockwood, P., Marshall, T. C., & Sadler, P. (2005) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167204271598 · Cited by 209
“Successful others can inspire individuals by exemplifying the success that one can achieve, providing a guide to achieving such success (cf. Buunk, Collins, Taylor, Van Yperen, & Dakof, 1990; Collins, 1996; Taylor & Lobel, 1989; Taylor, Wayment, & Carillo, 1996; Wood, 1989).”
BackgroundThe Importance of Role Models and Demographic Context for Senior Women's Work Identity Development
Sealy, R. H. V., & Singh, V. (2009) · International Journal of Management Reviews · doi:10.1111/j.1468-2370.2009.00262.x · Cited by 171
Ho, V. T., & Levesque, L. L. (2005) · Organization Science · doi:10.1287/orsc.1050.0121 · Cited by 148
“For example, they may engage in upward comparisons for the purpose of self-improvement or downward comparisons for the purpose of self-enhancement (Collins 1996, Wood 1989).”
BackgroundGulas, C. S., & McKeage, K. (2000) · Journal of Advertising · doi:10.1080/00913367.2000.10673606 · Cited by 148
Social comparison and coping with cancer treatment
van der Zee, K. I., Buunk, B. P., Sanderman, R., Botke, G., & van den Bergh, F. (2000) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/s0191-8869(99)00045-8 · Cited by 147
Asgari, S., Dasgupta, N., & Stout, J. G. (2011) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167211431968 · Cited by 162
“…2007), by modeling successful behaviors (Bandura, 1997), and by allowing observers to acquire skills and self-efficacy through vicarious learning (BarNir, Watson, & Hutchins, 2011), all of which enhance the motivation to succeed (Collins, 1996; Taylor, Wayment, & Carillo, 1996; Wood, 1989).”
BackgroundSelf-esteem, self-affirmation, and schadenfreude.
DIJK, W. W. V., van Koningsbruggen, G. M., Ouwerkerk, J. W., & Wesseling, Y. M. (2011) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/a0026331 · Cited by 142
“In support of the view that misfortunes of others might satisfy this concern, it has been proposed that one possible route to a more positive self-view involves comparing one’s own lot to that of less fortunate others (e.g., Collins, 1996; Wills, 1981; Wood, 1989).”
BackgroundThe dysfunctions of power in teams: A review and emergent conflict perspective
Greer, L. L., van Bunderen, L., & Yu, S. (2017) · Research in Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.riob.2017.10.005 · Cited by 156
“…low power individuals do socially compare their power position with that of other members, which can result in painful upward social comparisons (Collins, 1996; Festinger, 1954; Rijs-man, 1983), that reminds them of all the bene fi ts they lack and the vulnerable position they are in (Keltner et…”
BackgroundFocus of Comparison as a Determinant of Assimilation Versus Contrast in Social Comparison
Mussweiler, T. (2001) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167201271004 · Cited by 141
Female Leaders: Injurious or Inspiring Role Models for Women?
Hoyt, C. L., & Simon, S. (2011) · Psychology of Women Quarterly · doi:10.1177/0361684310385216 · Cited by 140
“Upward social comparisons can be self-enhancing, particularly when these comparisons focus on similarities with the superior other (Collins, 1996, 2000).”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Collins, R. L.
- Affiliations
- RAND Corporation (US)
- Corresponding author
- Collins, Rebecca L.
- ORCID
- Collins, Rebecca L.
- Venue
- Psychological Bulletin
- Published
- 1996-01
- Volume
- 119
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 51-69
- ISSN
- 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1455
- OpenAlex
- W2165368401
- Cited by
- 1,166
- References
- 93
- Citations by year
- 2026: 53 · 2025: 61 · 2024: 59 · 2023: 95 · 2022: 74 · 2021: 65 · 2020: 68 · 2019: 51 · 2018: 52 · 2017: 50 · 2016: 46 · 2015: 37 · 2014: 38 · 2013: 25 · 2012: 28
- FWCI
- 20.20
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Emotions and Moral Behavior
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
- Keywords
- upward social comparison, self-assessment, self-concept, social comparison theory
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