The DOI matches its Crossref record; 256 of the 257 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
The effects of feedback interventions on performance: A historical review, a meta-analysis, and a preliminary feedback intervention theory.
Abstract
Since the beginning of the century, feedback interventions (FIs) produced negative—but largely ignored—effects on performance. A meta-analysis (607 effect sizes; 23,663 observations) suggests that FIs improved performance on average (d =.41) but that over '/3 of the FIs decreased perfor-mance. This finding cannot be explained by sampling error, feedback sign, or existing theories. The authors proposed a preliminary FI theory (FIT) and tested it with moderator analyses. The central assumption of FIT is that FIs change the locus of attention among 3 general and hierarchically organized levels of control: task learning, task motivation, and meta-tasks (including self-related) processes. The results suggest that FI effectiveness decreases as attention moves up the hierarchy closer to the self and away from the task. These findings are further moderated by task characteristics that are still poorly understood. To relate feedback directly to behavior is very confusing. Results are contradictory and seldom straight-forward. (Ilgen, Fisher, & Taylor, 1979, p. 368) The effects of manipulation of KR [knowledge of results] on motor learning...reveal... some violent contradictions to earlier beliefs about KR, and some glaring absences in our knowledge. (Salmoni, Schmidt, & Walter, 1984, p. 378). Feedback does not uniformly improve performance. (Balcazar,
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In the citing paper
“A comprehensive review of research studies of feedback showed that feedback improved performance in 60% of them.In the cases where it was not helpful, the feedback turned out to be merely a judgment or grading with no indication of how to improve (Kluger & DeNisi, 1996).”
From Working inside the Black Box: Assessment for Learning in the Classroom (2004) · cites this paper as Kluger & DeNisi, 1996
In the citing paper
“The need to motivate pupils is evident, but it is often assumed that this is best done by offering such extrinsic rewards as merits, grades, gold stars and prizes.There is ample evidence that challenges this assumption.”
From Working inside the Black Box: Assessment for Learning in the Classroom (2004) · cites this paper as Kluger & DeNisi, 1996
In the citing paper
“The inclusion criteria are comparable to the criteria that were used to include meta-analyses in the Visible Learning research syntheses but allow to exclude studies from meta-analyses that encompass both an educational and a non-educational context (Wiersma, 1992; Kluger and DeNisi, 1996; Standley, 1996).”
From The Power of Feedback Revisited: A Meta-Analysis of Educational Feedback Research (2020) · cites this paper as Kluger and DeNisi, 1996
In the citing paper
“One of the most consistent findings about the power of feedback is the remarkable variability of effects.”
From The Power of Feedback Revisited: A Meta-Analysis of Educational Feedback Research (2020) · cites this paper as Kluger and DeNisi, 1996
In the citing paper
“The existing research has identified several relevant moderators like timing and specificity of the goals and task complexity (Kluger and DeNisi, 1996)”
From The Power of Feedback Revisited: A Meta-Analysis of Educational Feedback Research (2020) · cites this paper as Kluger and DeNisi, 1996
In the citing paper
“However, the efficacy of peer assessment, like traditional feedback, is likely to be contingent on a range of factors including characteristics of the learning environment, the student, and the assessment itself (Kluger and DeNisi 1996; Ossenberg et al. 2018).”
From The Impact of Peer Assessment on Academic Performance: A Meta-analysis of Control Group Studies (2020) · cites this paper as Kluger and DeNisi 1996
In the citing paper
“Kluger and DeNisi (1996), in their presentation of feedback intervention theory, used grading as an example of an external intervention likely to render metatask processes concerning self-goals, such as performance goals, salient at the expense of task-related goals.”
From Why grades engender performance-avoidance goals: The mediating role of autonomous motivation. (2011) · cites this paper as Kluger & DeNisi, 1996
In the citing paper
“but when A&F comes from a regulatory body, the recipient may be more likely to activate affective processes (e.g., distress) which distract attention from the specific task requiring change.”
From No more ‘business as usual’ with audit and feedback interventions: towards an agenda for a reinvigorated intervention (2014) · cites this paper as [10]
In the citing paper
“Feedback intervention theory [10] suggests that feedback that captures the recipient’s attention and directs it toward a specific behaviour is more likely to be successful”
From No more ‘business as usual’ with audit and feedback interventions: towards an agenda for a reinvigorated intervention (2014) · cites this paper as [10]
In the citing paper
“This crucial aspect of formative assessment that has been often discussed but too rarely studied is students' responses to feedback, or the internal mechanisms involved in the reception of feedback and their influences on learning and achievement (Butler and Winne, 1995;Kluger and DeNisi, 1996;Shute, 2008;Draper, 2009;Bennett, 2011;Dann, 2014;Panadero and Lipnevich, 2021).”
From The Next Black Box of Formative Assessment: A Model of the Internal Mechanisms of Feedback Processing (2022) · cites this paper as Kluger and DeNisi, 1996
In the citing paper
“For example, Kluger and DeNisi (1996) reported a mean effect size of 0.41 for formative feedback on performance, but 38% of these effects were negative.”
From The Next Black Box of Formative Assessment: A Model of the Internal Mechanisms of Feedback Processing (2022) · cites this paper as Kluger and DeNisi (1996)
In the citing paper
“For example, norm-referenced feedback promotes maladaptive attributional thinking (e.g., attributing failure to lack of ability) that demotivates efforts on subsequent tasks (Kluger and DeNisi, 1996).”
From The Next Black Box of Formative Assessment: A Model of the Internal Mechanisms of Feedback Processing (2022) · cites this paper as Kluger and DeNisi, 1996
In the citing paper
“there is evidence that assessment enhances performance when self-efficacy is high and impedes performance when self-efficacy is low (Beckmann, Beckmann, & Elliott, 2009;Birney, Beckmann, Beckmann, & Double, 2017;Kluger & DeNisi, 1996).”
From Using learning analytics to understand student perceptions of peer feedback (2021) · cites this paper as Kluger & DeNisi, 1996
In the citing paper
“Variations in the effect of feedback have been related to content, form and timing of the feedback, and studies have indeed found variations based on these factors”
From Using learning analytics to understand student perceptions of peer feedback (2021) · cites this paper as Kluger & DeNisi, 1996
In the citing paper
“Nevertheless, feedback does not always result in student improvement, and may in some cases inhibit learning rather than promote it.”
From Using learning analytics to understand student perceptions of peer feedback (2021) · cites this paper as Kluger & DeNisi, 1996
In the citing paper
“General information unrelated to the performance, comments about a good or poor performance or compliments are less effective than specific comments [27, 28].”
From Guidelines: The do’s, don’ts and don’t knows of feedback for clinical education. (2015) · cites this paper as [28]
In the citing paper
“Kluger and DeNisi’s feedback intervention theory, derived from their meta-analysis of over 130 studies of feedback interventions in various settings, also posits that feedback becomes less effective as attention shifts away from the task and toward the individual; in short, feedback that is threatening to self-esteem is unlikely to be effective [28].”
From Guidelines: The do’s, don’ts and don’t knows of feedback for clinical education. (2015) · cites this paper as [28]
In the citing paper
“feedback is most effective when directed at the task level and may assist in ‘deep processing and mastery of tasks’ when it is about processing of tasks or self-regulation.”
From Guidelines: The do’s, don’ts and don’t knows of feedback for clinical education. (2015) · cites this paper as [28]
In the citing paper
“Grades are a clear and non-nuanced form of feedback which can trigger both promotion and prevention responses in trainees [28].”
From Guidelines: The do’s, don’ts and don’t knows of feedback for clinical education. (2015) · cites this paper as [28]
In the citing paper
“positive feedback is more effective in motivating performance improvement for learners in promotion focus, while negative feedback is more useful in motivating performance improvement for learners in prevention focus [28].”
From Guidelines: The do’s, don’ts and don’t knows of feedback for clinical education. (2015) · cites this paper as [28]
In the citing paper
“but it is no less important to learning, and is influenced by feedback [28, 34, 45].”
From Guidelines: The do’s, don’ts and don’t knows of feedback for clinical education. (2015) · cites this paper as [28]
In the citing paper
“Feedback intervention theory [28] posits that feedback which threatens self-esteem is much less likely to be effective.”
From Guidelines: The do’s, don’ts and don’t knows of feedback for clinical education. (2015) · cites this paper as [28]
In the citing paper
“According to Kluger and de Nisi’s meta-analysis, some feedback recipients feel content to be ‘good enough’ or become helpless when told they are not making the grade, to the detriment of their performance [28].”
From Guidelines: The do’s, don’ts and don’t knows of feedback for clinical education. (2015) · cites this paper as [28]
In the citing paper
“There is evidence that feedback becomes less effective as its focus moves away from the task and toward the self [13, 28].”
From Guidelines: The do’s, don’ts and don’t knows of feedback for clinical education. (2015) · cites this paper as [28]
In the citing paper
“There are studies which have found learner preferences for group feedback [90] and for individual feedback [1] and it is clear that the context matters [28].”
From Guidelines: The do’s, don’ts and don’t knows of feedback for clinical education. (2015) · cites this paper as [28]
In the citing paper
“The results showed greater effectiveness with increasing frequency of the feedback,”
From Audit and feedback: effects on professional practice and healthcare outcomes (2012) · cites this paper as Kluger 1996
In the citing paper
“Feedback Intervention Theory (Kluger 1996), which suggests that feedback that directs attention towards acceptable and familiar tasks (as opposed to those that generate emotional responses or cause deep self‐reflection) seem most likely to lead to improvement.”
From Audit and feedback: effects on professional practice and healthcare outcomes (2012) · cites this paper as Kluger 1996
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Cited by
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Hattie, J., & Timperley, H. (2007) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/003465430298487 · Cited by 12,905
“From their major review, Kluger and DeNisi (1996) concluded that feedback is effective to the degree to which it directs information to enhanced self-efficacy and to more effective self-regulation, such that attention is directed back to the task and causes students to invest more effort or…”
BackgroundInfluentialAssessment and Classroom Learning
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“170 Perhaps the most surprising finding that emerged from the Kluger and DeNisi (1996) meta-analysis is that in more than one third of the 607 cases (effect sizes), FIs reduced performance.”
BackgroundSelf-efficacy and work-related performance: A meta-analysis.
Stajković, A. D., & Luthans, F. (1998) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.124.2.240 · Cited by 4,130
Metadata
- Authors
- Kluger, A. N., & DeNisi, A.
- Affiliations
- Hebrew University of Jerusalem (IL)
- Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey (US)
- ORCID
- Kluger, Avraham N.
- Venue
- Psychological Bulletin
- Published
- 1996-03
- Volume
- 119
- Issue
- 2
- Pages
- 254-284
- ISSN
- 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1455
- OpenAlex
- W2030441548
- Semantic Scholar
- 97cce81ca813ed757e1e76c0023865c7dbdc7308
- Cited by
- 5,882
- References
- 257
- Citations by year
- 2026: 273 · 2025: 264 · 2024: 235 · 2023: 286 · 2022: 287 · 2021: 369 · 2020: 432 · 2019: 344 · 2018: 302 · 2017: 334 · 2016: 317 · 2015: 354 · 2014: 261 · 2013: 252 · 2012: 221
- FWCI
- 36.04
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Sport Psychology and Performance
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Human Resource Development and Performance Evaluation
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Motor Control and Adaptation
- Keywords
- feedback interventions, performance improvement, feedback effectiveness, feedback intervention theory, task learning, task motivation, knowledge of results, motor learning, task characteristics
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