Cited by 2,319Behavioral Health and InterventionsEducation, Achievement, and GiftednessCognitive and psychological constructs research

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Goal constructs in psychology: Structure, process, and content.

Austin, James T., Vancouver, Jeffrey B.·1996·Psychological Bulletin

DOI 10.1037/0033-2909.120.3.338

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“In addition, Austin and Vancouver (1996) discussed six dimensions underlying reference values: importance commitment, difficulty level, specificity representation, temporal range, level of consciousness, and connected complexity.”
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“Life goals give meaning to a person’s life, are an important part of developing one’s identity [6,7], and are defined as internal representations of desired states that motivate behavior [8].”
Background
Results from an Online Computer-Tailored Weight Management Intervention for Overweight Adults: Randomized Controlled Trial
van Genugten, L., van Empelen, P., Boon, B. J. F., Borsboom, G., Visscher, T. L. S., & Oenema, A. (2012) · Journal of Medical Internet Research · doi:10.2196/jmir.1901 · Cited by 79
“Self-regulation [18,19] motivates and enables people to achieve self-set goals.”
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“Therefore, the operationalization is guided by expectancy value theory, which traditionally explains motivation as a factor of probability and value of a goal (see [64,65]).”
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“18 The doing level resembles what Austin and Vancouver (1996) refer to as scripts.”
Background
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Neel, R., & Lassetter, B. (2019) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/rev0000143 · Cited by 81
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Self-Regulation and Health Behavior
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“Personal goals play an important role in the attainment of a subjective sense of well-being by lending people a sense of purpose, direction and meaning.(1,2) Psychotherapy research has increasingly focused on the goals of patients.”
Background
Life Goals and Well-Being: Are Extrinsic Aspirations Always Detrimental to Well-Being?
Brdar, I., Rijavec, M., & Miljković, D. (2009) · University of Zagreb University Computing Centre (SRCE) · Cited by 71
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“Motivational researchers have shown that individuals are more likely to act upon goals when they are highly salient (Abraham and Sheeran 2003; Austin and Vancouver 1996).”
Background
Coping, Goal Adjustment, and Positive and Negative Affect in Definitive Infertility
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“General aspects of social interaction as a goal Establishing a satisfactory, pleasurable interaction is an important goal or concern in itself (Austin & Vancouver, 1996).”
Background
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“Psychologists have written extensively about the motivating influence goals have on purposeful and adaptive behavior (Austin & Vancouver, 1996; Winell, 1987).”
Background
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Background
Habit Interventions
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“Introduction Achievement goals and organizational commitment are internal representations of desired states that guide individuals’ pursuits (Austin and Vancouver, 1996; Meyer and Allen, 1997).”
Background
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“…goal methods and constructs offer powerful tools for researching the motivational dynamics of personality (Cantor & Fleeson, 1994; Emmons, 1996), and in the past decade an explosion of personal goal-based research has appeared (see Austin & Vancouver, 1996, for a review).”
Background
Risk management or goods promotion: The relationship between approach and avoidance goals in treatment for sex offenders
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“Goals are defined as representations of desired states (Austin and Vancouver, 1996).”
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“Except for the fact that a goal changes with time (Austin & Vancouver, 1996), we can only speculate about this puzzling finding: perhaps people seek treatment mostly because of their drug problems, and the treatment raises their consciousness about their alcohol problems.”
Background
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“Grounding our model in self-regulatory theory, we describe an episodic, unfolding process in which an envy attribution links two distinct yet interconnected self-regulatory cycles (Austin & Vancouver, 1996; Carver & Scheier, 2001).”
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“Most actions are goal directed, as people strive to make progress toward goals that provide them with a sense of structure, meaning, and purpose (Austin and Vancouver 1996).”
An integrative formal model of motivation and decision making: The MGPM*.
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“Avoidance goals are internal representations of undesired states in contrast to approach goals, which are internal representations of desired states (Austin & Vancouver, 1996).”
BackgroundSelf-citation
The Contribution of Social Goal Setting to Children's School Adjustment
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A taxonomy for goal setting in the care of persons with dementia
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Stairways to Heaven: An Interlocking Self-Regulation Model of Negotiation
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Book Review
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Work-related goal appraisals and stress during the transition from education to work
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Employees' motivational orientation and well‐being at work
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Relations between Teachers’ Goal Orientations, Their Instructional Practices and Students’ Motivation
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“…a fundamental assumption is, that a certain goal increases the probability of a certain course of action if, and only if, the person appraises this course of action or its results as functional for the attainment of the goal at hand (e.g., Austin & Vancouver, 1996; Elliott & Dweck, 1988).”
Background
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“Goals and predictions are of course distinct constructs: Whereas goals represent desired future states, predictions represent beliefs about what will actually transpire (Austin & Vancouver, 1996; Fishbach & Ferguson, 2007; Karniol & Ross, 1996).”
Background
Perceived self-regulation of exercise goals and interfering goals among regular and irregular exercisers: a life space analysis
Karoly, P., Ruehlman, L. S., Okun, M. A., Lutz, R. S., Newton, C., & Fairholme, C. (2004) · Psychology of sport and exercise · doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2004.03.004 · Cited by 69
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Goal Complexes: a New Approach to Studying the Coordination, Consequences, and Social Contexts of Pursuing Multiple Goals
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“Hewing to the broader field of psychology’s definition of the goal construct (Austin & Vancouver, 1996), he defined achievement goals as a cognitive representation of competence-focused aims (or standards) that individuals strive to attain or to avoid failing to attain.”
Background
Discrepancies Between Beliefs and Behavior
Massey, E. K., Tielen, M., Laging, M., Timman, R., Beck, D. K., Khemai, R., van Gelder, T., & Weimar, W. W. (2015) · Transplantation · doi:10.1097/tp.0000000000000608 · Cited by 72
“Goal pursuit or self-regulatory skills include goal setting, planning, monitoring, revision, and emotion regulation.(33) There is a clear need for studies investigating the development and testing of adherence-promoting interventions after transplantation.”
Background
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“Goals are likely to influence the ability to discriminate the best time to disengage because people compare their current situations to goals and this comparison motivates behavior (Elliot et al. 2006; Scherer 1999; see Austin and Vancouver 1996 for a review).”
Background
Toward a comprehensive taxonomy of human motives
Talevich, J., Read, S. J., Walsh, D. A., Iyer, R., & Chopra, G. (2017) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0172279 · Cited by 66
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Will older persons and their clinicians use a shared decision-making instrument?
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“Setting explicit goals makes the process of achievement more salient by highlighting intermediate tasks necessary to final achievement (Austin & Vancouver, 1996; Goodman, 2001; Karoly, 1993; Locke & Latham, 1990).”
Background
Parents who catastrophize about their child’s pain prioritize attempts to control pain
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“The value of a goal plays a major role in selecting the principal goal [2,25].”
Background
The Volitional and Strategic Effects of Planning on Task Performance and Goal Commitment
Diefendorff, J. M., & Lord, R. G. (2003) · Human Performance · doi:10.1207/s15327043hup1604_3 · Cited by 62
“Planning can be defined as the process of generating a sequence of behaviors used to translate an individual’s resources into actions aimed at goal attainment (Austin & Vancouver, 1996; Earley et al., 1987; Hayes-Roth & Hayes-Roth, 1978).”
Background
Reaching the breaking point: a dynamic process theory of business-to-business customer defection
Hollmann, T., Jarvis, C. B., & Bitner, M. J. (2014) · Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science · doi:10.1007/s11747-014-0385-6 · Cited by 65
“Consistent with Austin and Vancouver (1996), we define the individual goals image as internal states representing desired shapes of outcomes, events, or processes as they relate to the customer’s professional life.”
Method
Taiwanese Students' Self-Attributions for Two Types of Achievement Goals
Chen, S.-W., Wang, H., Wei, C.-F., Fwu, B.-J., & Hwang, K. (2009) · The Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.3200/socp.149.2.179-194 · Cited by 64
How do we deal with multiple goals for care within an individual patient trajectory? A document content analysis of health service research papers on goals for care
Berntsen, G., Gammon, D., Steinsbekk, A., Salamonsen, A., Foss, N., Ruland, C. M., & Fønnebø, V. M. (2015) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2015-009403 · Cited by 64
Action Regulation Across the Adult Lifespan (ARAL): A Metatheory of Work and Aging
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Coexisting Agency and Stewardship Governance in Family Firms: An Empirical Investigation of Individual-Level and Firm-Level Effects
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“Similarly, goal research suggests that individuals can focus only on limited priorities at once (Austin & Vancouver, 1996).”
Background
A hierarchical taxonomy of top managers' goals.
Bateman, T. S., O’Neill, H. M., & Kenworthy, A. L. (2002) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.87.6.1134 · Cited by 71
Context-related problems and university students’ dropout intentions—the buffering effect of personal best goals
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“According to a goal content perspective, meeting a challenging achievement (or improvement) standard is an important task-based goal that individuals strive for (Austin and Vancouver 1996).”
BackgroundInfluential
Toward a goal-oriented view of customer journeys
Becker, L., Jaakkola, E., & Halinen, A. (2020) · Journal of service management · doi:10.1108/josm-11-2019-0329 · Cited by 97
Achieving IT Program Goals with Integrative Conflict Management
Jiang, J. J., Chang, J. Y. T., Chen, H., Wang, E. T. G., & Klein, G. L. (2014) · Journal of Management Information Systems · doi:10.2753/mis0742-1222310104 · Cited by 63
“One theoretical perspective applied to the program environment is based on the tradition of goal research [6, 70].”
BackgroundInfluential
Examining the role of social goals in school: A study in two collectivist cultures
King, R. B., McInerney, D. M., & Watkins, D. (2013) · European Journal of Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/s10212-013-0179-0 · Cited by 64
“The goal construct has become a focal variable in psychological research (Austin and Vancouver 1996; Elliot 2008).”
Background
The Effect of Conflict Goals on Avoidance Strategies: What Does Not Communicating Communicate?
Wang, Q., Fink, E. L., & Cai, D. A. (2012) · Human Communication Research · doi:10.1111/j.1468-2958.2011.01421.x · Cited by 63
Jobs and Job-holders: Two Sources of Happiness and Unhappiness
Warr, P. B. (2013) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199557257.013.0054 · Cited by 71
“Given that goals may be defined as “internal representations of desired states” (Austin & Vancouver, 1996, p. 338), good progress towards a goal (a “desired state”) is generally associated with better well-being, and low or negative progress gives rise to reduced well-being (e.g., Lyubomirsky,…”
Background
Effective self-regulation change techniques to promote mental wellbeing among adolescents: a meta-analysis
van Genugten, L., Dusseldorp, E., Massey, E. K., & van Empelen, P. (2016) · Health Psychology Review · doi:10.1080/17437199.2016.1252934 · Cited by 71
“Coding of the intervention characteristics and intervention strategies There are two types of self-regulation: behavioural regulation and affect regulation (Austin & Vancouver, 1996).”
The Flow Model Revisited
Keller, J., & Landhäußer, A. (2012) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-2359-1_3 · Cited by 70
Differential activation of judgments in employee well‐being
Warr, P. B. (2006) · Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1348/096317905x52652 · Cited by 67
COMMENTARIES
(2002) · Psychological Inquiry · doi:10.1207/s15327965pli1304_02 · Cited by 73
Engagement in psychotherapy: Factors contributing to the facilitation, demise, and restoration of the therapeutic alliance.
Constantino, M. J., Castonguay, L. G., Zack, S., & DeGeorge, J. (2010) · American Psychological Association eBooks · doi:10.1037/12139-001 · Cited by 63
How to Beat Procrastination
Krause, K., & Freund, A. M. (2013) · European Psychologist · doi:10.1027/1016-9040/a000153 · Cited by 75
“Outcomes are higher than means in the goal hierarchy (e.g., Austin & Vancouver, 1996; Vallacher & Wegner, 1987).”
Background
Deference in Indians' decision making: Introjected goals or injunctive norms?
Savani, K., Morris, M. W., & Naidu, N. V. R. (2011) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0026415 · Cited by 61
“In contrast, if authority primes activate introjected goals, then they should shift participants’ judgments of what they want to do, given that goal striving is defined by increased wanting for the goal target (Austin & Vancouver, 1996; Bargh et al., 2001; Markman & Brendl, 2000).”
Background
“Well it has to be language-related”: Speech-language pathologists' goals for people with aphasia and their families
Sherratt, S., Worrall, L. E., Pearson, C., Howe, T., Hersh, D., & Davidson, B. J. (2011) · International Journal of Speech-Language Pathology · doi:10.3109/17549507.2011.584632 · Cited by 61
Goal Pursuit and Goal Adjustment as Predictors of Disability and Quality of Life Among Individuals With a Lower Limb Amputation: A Prospective Study
Coffey, L., Gallagher, P., & Desmond, D. M. (2013) · Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation · doi:10.1016/j.apmr.2013.08.011 · Cited by 61
Shared Book Reading: Parental Goals Across the Primary Grades and Goal–Behavior Relationships in Junior Kindergarten
Audet, D., Evans, M. A., Williamson, K., & Reynolds, K. (2008) · Early Education and Development · doi:10.1080/10409280701839189 · Cited by 61
“Austin and Vancouver (1996) discussed the importance of studying people’s goals and what motivates them. Thus, an understanding of parent behaviors during shared book reading should also include an understanding of their goals for this activity. One can hypothesize that people will be motivated to behave in a way that…”
Background
Moral Utility Theory: Understanding the motivation to behave (un)ethically
Hirsh, J. B., Lu, J. G., & Galinsky, A. D. (2018) · Research in Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.riob.2018.10.002 · Cited by 67
“The principle of SEU maximization has also been linked to theories of motivation that emphasize the self-regulation of behavior through the pursuit of goals (Austin & Vancouver, 1996; Bandura, 1989; Carver & Scheier, 1998; Kruglanski et al., 2002; Latham & Locke, 1991).”
A Closer Look at Life Goals across Adulthood: Applying A Developmental Perspective to Content, Dynamics, and Outcomes of Goal Importance and Goal Attainability
Bühler, J. L., Weidmann, R., Nikitin, J., & Grob, A. (2019) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1002/per.2194 · Cited by 76
“To successfully manage these challenges, people develop, maintain, and adjust their goals (e.g. Austin & Vancouver, 1996).”
Background
A self-regulatory model of consideration set formation
Paulssen, M., & Bagozzi, R. P. (2005) · Psychology and Marketing · doi:10.1002/mar.20085 · Cited by 61
Individual differences in emotion regulation goals: Does personality predict the reasons why people regulate their emotions?
Eldesouky, L., & English, T. (2018) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/jopy.12430 · Cited by 73
Changing Behavior Using Social Cognitive Theory
Łuszczyńska, A., & Schwarzer, R. (2020) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108677318.003 · Cited by 81
The relationship between meaning in life and post-traumatic stress symptoms in US military personnel: A meta-analysis
Fischer, I. C., Shanahan, M. L., Hirsh, A. T., Stewart, J. C., & Rand, K. L. (2020) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2020.08.063 · Cited by 69
Consumer Vulnerability to Perceived Product Similarity Problems: Scale Development and Identification
Walsh, G., & Mitchell, V. (2005) · Journal of Macromarketing · doi:10.1177/0276146705280613 · Cited by 65
Religion and Spirituality? The Roles of Sanctification and the Concept of God
Emmons, R. A., & Crumpler, C. A. (1999) · International Journal for the Psychology of Religion · doi:10.1207/s15327582ijpr0901_3 · Cited by 60

Authors: Austin, J. T., & Vancouver, J. B.
Affiliations: The Ohio State University (US)
ORCID: Vancouver, Jeffrey B.
Venue: Psychological Bulletin
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 1996-11
Volume: 120
Issue: 3
Pages: 338-375
ISSN: 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
1939-1455
DOI: 10.1037/0033-2909.120.3.338
OpenAlex: W2075289001
Semantic Scholar: 0539efa59c31b4c9b22f866f1b3c65eedb554856
Cited by: 2,319
References: 474
Citations by year: 2026: 62 · 2025: 76 · 2024: 76 · 2023: 224 · 2022: 90 · 2021: 108 · 2020: 148 · 2019: 93 · 2018: 89 · 2017: 110 · 2016: 93 · 2015: 117 · 2014: 85 · 2013: 94 · 2012: 118
FWCI: 23.42
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Behavioral Health and Interventions
Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Education, Achievement, and Giftedness
Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Cognitive and psychological constructs research
Keywords: goal setting, goal structure, goal content, motivation, achievement motivation

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