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Goal constructs in psychology: Structure, process, and content.

Austin, James T., Vancouver, Jeffrey B.·1996·Psychological Bulletin

DOI 10.1037/0033-2909.120.3.338

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“Also, there are often multiple, competing goals within a situation ( Austin & Vancouver, 1996 ), and coping goals may vary across situations and persons (Coyne & Racioppo, 2000).”
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“In essence, goals are desired states or situations (i.e., valued states or goods) that individuals strive to achieve or to avoid, and as such are important components of personality (Austin & Vancouver, 1996; Emmons, 1996).”
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“…Hulleman et al. (2010), to retain a precise focus on studies of achievement goals defined as representations of desired or undesired end states (Austin & Vancouver, 1996; Elliot & Fryer, 2008; Harackiewicz & Sansone, 1991; Kruglanski, 1996), we excluded studies in which goals were measured…”
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“Rationale: A goal is defined as “an internal representation of a desired outcome” [3].”
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“…around personal goals (i.e., internal representations of future states that the individual strives to attain or avoid; for a review of goal constructs in psychology, see Austin & Vancouver, 1996) and that personal goals thus play an important role in the construction of episodic future thoughts.”
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“Just as attitudes differ not only in their valence (i.e., positive vs. negative) and extremity (i.e., how positive or negative) but also in their strength (Petty & Krosnick, 1995), so too intentions may differ in their strength and priority (cf. Austin & Vancouver, 1996).”
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“The view that changing attitudes or intentions will, by itself, accomplish behavior change has been common in psychology as well as in applied areas (Abraham et al., 1998; Austin and Vancouver, 1996; Dahlstrand and Biel, 1997; Eagly and Chaiken, 1993).”
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“Moreover, the goal-setting literature (cf. Austin & Vancouver, 1996) suggests that applicants who fail a selection battery and retake it are motivated to improve their scores the second time.”
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“Goal constructs are important in most social cognitive models of motivation, although there are a plethora of different goal constructs and models ( Austin & Vancouver, 1996 ).”
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“Goals are internal representations of desired states, construed as outcomes, events, or processes (Austin and Vancouver 1996).”
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“2000 Academic Press Personal goals have been of central importance in models of motivation and explanations of behavior (see Austin & Vancouver, 1996; Pervin, 1983).”
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“Values can be seen as the most abstract cognitions or extreme global attitudes, as goals to provide general orientation and organization for life (Austin & Vancouver, 1996), and they serve, as Rokeach (1968) puts it, as ‘standards’ or models for attitudes, beliefs and behavior.”
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“First, different relationships are likely to exist because self-efficacy beliefs play different roles across different goal processes (Austin & Vancouver, 1996).”
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“In addition, the targets are drawn from goal theories (see Austin & Vancouver, 1996 for a useful overview), operant conditioning (e.”
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“A great deal is known about the ‘‘mechanics’’ of goal setting and how various attributes of goals (e.g., difficulty, specificity, commitment, level of abstraction, temporal range) impact on human motivation and performance across multiple domains (for a comprehensive review see Austin & Vancouver, 1996 ).”
Background
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“It is posited that future time perspective (a personality trait) precedes general retirement goal clarity in the model based on the theoretical position advanced in Mowen (2000; see also Austin and Vancouver 1996).”
Background
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“A large literature indicates the power of goals (Austin & Vancouver, 1996; Locke & Latham, 2002; Tubbs, 1986; Wood, Mento, & Locke, 1987).”
Background
Possible Identities
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“The formation of future goals has been examined in career development theories (Mitchell & Krumboltz, 1996; Super, 1990) and through empirical research (see Austin & Vancouver, 1996).”
Background
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van Geert, P. L. C., & Steenbeek, H. (2005) · Developmental Review · doi:10.1016/j.dr.2005.10.003 · Cited by 223
“The first property is that action and social interaction, for that matter, is goal-oriented (Austin & Vancouver, 1996).”
Background
Integrating cognitive and motivational factors in depression: Initial tests of a goal-orientation approach.
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“For example, the occupational goal of getting a raise may be rendered temporally meaningless by having a sick child (Argyle, Furham, & Graham, 1981; Austin & Vancouver, 1996; Carver & Scheier, 2000; Dodge, Ascher, & Parkhurst, 1989; Ford, 1992; McFarland, 1989; Powers, 1973; Vancouver, 2000;…”
Background
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“People’s mental images can, of course, be closely related to their goals; however, processes of goal formation and imagery are conceptually and functionally distinct (Austin & Vancouver, 1996; Cantor et al., 1986; Mook, 1987).”
Background
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“The goal-based similarity approach holds that objects are similar insofar as they share a set of associations in memory that are organized around common goals (e.g., Austin and Vancouver 1996; Barsalou 1983, 1985; Diddams 1994).”
Background
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Neal, A. F., Ballard, T., & Vancouver, J. B. (2017) · Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-032516-113156 · Cited by 222
Self-citation
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A Hierarchical Taxonomy of Human Goals
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“Goals are stable, higher-order entities that function as abstract, organizing structures and remain fairly stable over time (e.g., Austin & Vancouver, 1996; Ford & Nichols, 1987; Higgins & Sorrentino, 1990; Pervin, 1989; Read & Miller, 1989; Schank & Abelson, 1977; Sorrentino & Higgins, 1986; Wilensky, 1983).”
BackgroundInfluential
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Self-citation
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“, Austin and Vancouver, 1996; Locke & Latham, 1990). Yet, its formal incorporation into theories of motivation has been notoriously slow (Fried & Slowik, 2004). To accomplish this goal, we integrate Steel and König’s (2006) TMT with a control-theory-based subsystems approach (e.”
MethodSelf-citation
Moving from cognition to behavior: What the research says.
Johnson, R. E., Chang, C.-H., & Lord, R. G. (2006) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.132.3.381 · Cited by 193
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“…feature-based or attribute-based similarity (Aaker and Keller 1990; Boush and Loken 1991; Loken and John 1993; Van Osselaer and Alba 2003; Zhang and Sood 2002), brand-specific associations (Broniarczyk and Alba 1994), and goal congruency (Austin and Vancouver 1996; Martin and Stewart 2001).”
Background
Personal goals and well-being during critical life transitions: The four C's—Channelling, choice, co-agency and compensation
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“…as “control theory”) is the study of principles governing goal-directed systems that self-regulate via feedback,1 and it provides a powerful framework for understanding psychological and brain function (Austin & Vancouver, 1996; Bechhoefer, 2005; Carver & Scheier, 1998; Powers, 1973; Wiener, 1961).”
Background
Strategies, Uncertainty and Performance of Small Business Startups
van Gelderen, M., Fresé, M., & Thurik, R. (2000) · Small Business Economics · doi:10.1023/a:1008113613597 · Cited by 202
How functionalist and process approaches to behavior can explain trait covariation.
Wood, D., Gardner, M. H., & Harms, P. D. (2015) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/a0038423 · Cited by 193
“This can be understood more generally as the principle that there are usually multiple means to a given end (Austin & Vancouver, 1996; Bertalanffy, 1968; Kruglanski et al., 2002), and parallels social–cognitive explorations of the diverse processes that influence a specific behavioral trait (e.g.,…”
Background
Paradoxical Leadership and Innovation in Work Teams: The Multilevel Mediating Role of Ambidexterity and Leader Vision as a Boundary Condition
Zhang, M. J., Zhang, Y., & Law, K. S. (2021) · Academy of Management Journal · doi:10.5465/amj.2017.1265 · Cited by 204
Industrial and Organisation Research on Self‐Regulation: From Constructs to Applications
Vancouver, J. B., & Day, D. V. (2005) · Applied Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1464-0597.2005.00202.x · Cited by 190
Self-citation
Goal Clarity and Financial Planning Activities as Determinants of Retirement Savings Contributions
Stawski, R. S., Hershey, D. A., & Jacobs‐Lawson, J. M. (2007) · The International Journal of Aging and Human Development · doi:10.2190/13gk-5h72-h324-16p2 · Cited by 189
“According to Austin and Vancouver (1996), the research literature on goals can be divided into three broad categories: content research, which focuses on the content of individuals’ specific goals (e.g., travel; relaxation); structural research, which describes how goals are inter-related (e.g.,…”
BackgroundInfluential
Neural correlates of personal goal processing during episodic future thinking and mind-wandering: An ALE meta-analysis
Stawarczyk, D., & D’Argembeau, A. (2015) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.22818 · Cited by 203
“Personal goals are hierarchically organized mental representations of desired endstates that impact and drive cognition and behavior [Austin and Vancouver, 1996; Conway, 2005, 2009; Fishbach and Ferguson, 2007], and an important function of EFT may precisely be to construct detailed representations…”
The Psychology of Fatigue: Work, Effort and Control
Hockey, R. J. (2013) · Cited by 187
Direct and Indirect Effects of Passion on Growing Technology Ventures
Drnovšek, M., Cardon, M. S., & Patel, P. C. (2016) · Strategic Entrepreneurship Journal · doi:10.1002/sej.1213 · Cited by 196
Entrepreneurial intention among science & technology students in India: extending the theory of planned behavior
Roy, R., Akhtar, F., & Das, N. (2017) · International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal · doi:10.1007/s11365-017-0434-y · Cited by 199
Approach and avoidance motivation: investigating hedonic consumption in a retail setting
Arnold, M. J., & Reynolds, K. E. (2012) · Journal of Retailing · doi:10.1016/j.jretai.2011.12.004 · Cited by 184
“The dominant conceptualization of the interrelationships between goals and motivations is hierarchical (Austin and Vancouver 1996).”
Background
Explaining Change: Theorizing and Testing Dynamic Mediated Longitudinal Relationships
Pitariu, A. H., & Ployhart, R. E. (2010) · Journal of Management · doi:10.1177/0149206308331096 · Cited by 187
“…the mediational paths are stable over time or are subject to change, thus addressing the issue of the dynamics of the mediated relationship over time—precisely as hypothesized in numerous theories (e.g., Austin & Vancouver, 1996; Latham & Locke, 1991; Lewicki & Bunker, 1996; Zajac et al., 2000).”
Background
Leading from different psychological distances: A construal-level perspective on vision communication, goal setting, and follower motivation
Berson, Y., Halevy, N., Shamir, B., & Erez, M. (2014) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2014.07.011 · Cited by 192
Rehabilitating sexual offenders: A strength-based approach.
Marshall, W. L., & American Psychological Association (2011) · American Psychological Association eBooks · doi:10.1037/12310-000 · Cited by 181
A review of personality and performance: Identifying boundaries, contingencies, and future research directions
Penney, L. M., David, E., & Witt, L. A. (2010) · Human Resource Management Review · doi:10.1016/j.hrmr.2010.10.005 · Cited by 204
Personality development and organizational behavior.
Roberts, B. W. (2006) · Research in Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1016/s0191-3085(06)27001-1 · Cited by 177
“This category is explicitly hierarchical, and the structure of goals and motives has been discussed by numerous researchers (Austin & Vancouver, 1996; Emmons, 1986).”
Background
A daily investigation of the role of manager empathy on employee well-being
Scott, B. A., Colquitt, J. A., Paddock, E. L., & Judge, T. A. (2010) · Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes · doi:10.1016/j.obhdp.2010.08.001 · Cited by 185
“Consequently, it may be that the relationship between goal progress and well-being is stronger (i.e., more positive) when the goals pursued are important to individuals (e.g., Austin & Vancouver, 1996; Harris et al., 2003; Sheldon & Kasser, 1998).”
Background

Authors: Austin, J. T., & Vancouver, J. B.
Affiliations: The Ohio State University (US)
ORCID: Vancouver, Jeffrey B.
Venue: Psychological Bulletin
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 1996-11
Volume: 120
Issue: 3
Pages: 338-375
ISSN: 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
1939-1455
DOI: 10.1037/0033-2909.120.3.338
OpenAlex: W2075289001
Semantic Scholar: 0539efa59c31b4c9b22f866f1b3c65eedb554856
Cited by: 2,319
References: 474
Citations by year: 2026: 62 · 2025: 76 · 2024: 76 · 2023: 224 · 2022: 90 · 2021: 108 · 2020: 148 · 2019: 93 · 2018: 89 · 2017: 110 · 2016: 93 · 2015: 117 · 2014: 85 · 2013: 94 · 2012: 118
FWCI: 23.42
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Behavioral Health and Interventions
Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Education, Achievement, and Giftedness
Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Cognitive and psychological constructs research
Keywords: goal setting, goal structure, goal content, motivation, achievement motivation

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Goal constructs in psychology: Structure, process, and content.

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