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Goal constructs in psychology: Structure, process, and content.

Austin, James T., Vancouver, Jeffrey B.·1996·Psychological Bulletin

DOI 10.1037/0033-2909.120.3.338

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Do First-Year Seminars Improve College Grades and Retention? A Quantitative Review of Their Overall Effectiveness and an Examination of Moderators of Effectiveness
Permzadian, V., & Credé, M. (2015) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/0034654315584955 · Cited by 115
“The general concept of goals as a motivational construct has received considerable empirical support (e.g., Austin & Vancouver, 1996; Locke & Latham, 1990).”
Background
Group Cognitive Behavioural Therapy for Depression Outcomes Predicted by Willingness to Engage in Homework, Compliance with Homework, and Cognitive Restructuring Skill Acquisition
Neimeyer, R. A., Kazantzis, N., Kassler, D. M., Baker, K. D., & Fletcher, R. (2008) · Cognitive Behaviour Therapy · doi:10.1080/16506070801981240 · Cited by 113
“Cognitive theories of attitude–behaviour relations, models of health behaviour, and goal theories all converge on the idea that intention is the key determinant of motivation and behaviour (see Abraham, Sheeran, & Johnston, 1998; Austin & Vancouver, 1996; Conner & Norman, 1996; Maddux, 1999).”
Background
Young managers’ drive to thrive: A personal work goal approach to burnout and work engagement
Hyvönen, K., Feldt, T., Salmela‐Aro, K., Kinnunen, U. M., & Mäkikangas, A. (2009) · Journal of Vocational Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.jvb.2009.04.002 · Cited by 117
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“…study focused on emerging adults’ personal goals, meaning the future-oriented states, outcomes, or representations of what they strive to achieve (Austin & Vancouver, 1996) and on their personal concerns, meaning the states they are concerned about or fear might come true (Nurmi, Poole, &…”
Background
Predicting Objectively Assessed Physical Activity From the Content and Regulation of Exercise Goals: Evidence for a Mediational Model
Sebire, S. J., Standage, M., & Vansteenkiste, M. (2011) · Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology · doi:10.1123/jsep.33.2.175 · Cited by 111
“The goals that individuals pursue are important when studying motivation using SDT. Austin and Vancouver (1996) define goals as “internal representations of desired states, where states are broadly construed as outcomes, events or processes” (p. 338), and within SDT both the content and the behavioral regulation of go…”
Background
Self-Regulation in Organizational Settings
Vancouver, J. B. (2000) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-012109890-2/50039-1 · Cited by 114
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Luber, B. M., Davis, S. W., Bernhardt, E. R., Neacsiu, A. D., Kwapil, L., Lisanby, S. H., & Strauman, T. J. (2017) · NeuroImage · doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2016.12.083 · Cited by 117
“Austin and Vancouver (1996) identified approach and avoidance goals as among the most important classes of goals.”
A Cybernetic Model of Global Personality Traits
Egeren, L. F. V. (2009) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1177/1088868309334860 · Cited by 117
“Goal theory (Austin & Vancouver, 1996; Pervin, 1983) and cybernetic feedback control theory (Hyland, 1988; Powers, 1973a, 1973b) make the conceptual shift I am proposing.”
Background
Goal conflict and psychological well-being: a meta-analysis.
Gray, J. S., Ozer, D. J., & Rosenthal, R. (2017) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2016.12.003 · Cited by 103
“Goal conflict is present when the pursuit of one valued goal hinders the pursuit of another valued goal (Austin & Vancouver, 1996).”
Background
Finding a Between-Person Negative Effect of Self-Efficacy on Performance: Not Just a Within-Person Effect Anymore
Vancouver, J., Gullekson, N. L., Morse, B. J., & Warren, M. (2014) · Human Performance · doi:10.1080/08959285.2014.913593 · Cited by 105
“Part of the scrutiny has focused on distinguishing goal processes that might use these types of beliefs (Austin & Vancouver, 1996).”
BackgroundSelf-citation
Linking personality states, current social roles and major life goals
Bleidorn, W. (2009) · European Journal of Personality · doi:10.1002/per.731 · Cited by 117
“It is generally agreed that goals can be described along a hierarchical framework in which rather stable higher order goals embrace several contextualized subgoals which in turn can be broken down into specific goals relating to immediate actions (Austin & Vancouver, 1996).”
Background
Sticking It Out
Patel, P. C., & Thatcher, S. M. B. (2012) · Journal of Management · doi:10.1177/0149206312446643 · Cited by 113
“Goals are cognitive representations of desired endpoints that potentially impact evaluations, emotions, and behaviors (Austin & Vancouver, 1996).”
Background
Understanding benefits of repetition from a complex dynamic systems perspective: The case of a writing task
Nitta, R., & Baba, K. (2018) · Task-Based Language Teaching · doi:10.1075/tblt.11.11nit · Cited by 105
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“…one’s coach and one’s own teammates might affect coordination goalS Goals are the aims, objectives, and outcomes that we hope result from our actions (Austin & Vancouver, 1996; Locke & Latham, 1990) Goals shape our attention in motivated and selective ways They impact how we process information…”
Background
The Self-Memory System Revisited
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“With repeated failure, individuals face tougher decisions about whether to persist, revise the goal, or quit the activity (Austin & Vancouver, 1996).”
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“Commitment is defined as “how long an individual is willing to strive for a specific goal” (Austin and Vancouver, 1996, p. 6) and is one of the most important factors to consider as people persist and strive towards their goals (e.g., Brunstein, 1993; Hollenbeck and Klein, 1987; Locke et al., 1988).”
Background
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“pleasure is created when goals are achieved (Austin and Vancouver 1996; Boldero and Francis 2002; Heath et al. 1999; Oettingen et al. 2001; Winkielman and Cacioppo 2001).”
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“Life goals are defined as internal representations of a desired state.(16) Schwartz and colleagues' theoretical framework on the nature and impact of personal goals in children and adolescents with a chronic health condition posits that setting, prioritising, and working towards a goal is associated with positive outc…”
Background
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“Breaking down goals by adding lower layers in the goal hierarchy (Austin and Vancouver, 1996), makes clear on a more detailed level what is needed to reach the goal, or can highlight alternative ways to reach a goal.”
BackgroundInfluential
How to Make Innovations Practical
Janssen, F. J. J. M., Westbroek, H. B., Doyle, W., & DRIEL, J. H. V. (2013) · Teachers College Record The Voice of Scholarship in Education · doi:10.1177/016146811311500703 · Cited by 100
“The common thread across these three domains is that purposeful action is viewed as a process of reducing as much as possible the perceived gap between an existing situation and a desired one (see Austin & Vancouver, 1996; Pollock, 2006; Simon, 1996).”
Background
User Behavior and Technology Development
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Velocity Toward Goal Attainment in Immediate Experience as a Determinant of Affect
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Feedback and the rationing of time and effort among competing tasks.
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“Although scholars have frequently called for research on selfregulation in the context of multiple tasks (e.g., Austin & Vancouver , 1996; Carver, 1994; Donovan, 2001; Locke & Latham, 1990; Mitchell & Daniels, 2002), relatively little work has addressed the issue.”
Background
Dealing with Adversity
Aspinwall, L. G. (2001) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9780470998519.ch27 · Cited by 97
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“Goals are defined as states of affairs (events, processes, or outcomes) that people wish to attain or maintain (Austin & Vancouver, 1996; Dillard, Segrin, & Harden, 1989).”
Background
The role of action planning and plan enactment for smoking cessation
de Vries, H., Eggers, S. M., & Bolman, C. A. W. (2013) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/1471-2458-13-393 · Cited by 93
“into specific actions in order to achieve a desired behavior goal [20].”
Background
Factors Influencing Engagement, Perceived Usefulness and Behavioral Mechanisms Associated with a Text Message Support Program
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“According to motivated action theory (DeShon & Gillespie, 2005) and other theoretical approaches describing goal pursuit (Austin & Vancouver, 1996; Frese & Zapf, 1994), human behavior is regulated by hierarchically organized goals.”
Background
Formation and Constitution of Effectual Networks: A Systematic Review and Synthesis
Kerr, J., & Coviello, N. E. (2019) · International Journal of Management Reviews · doi:10.1111/ijmr.12194 · Cited by 96
“Taking this further, the numerous motives identified in our study may reflect process goals that are typically subordinate to higher-level goals that cascade down through the goal hierarchy (Austin and Vancouver 1996; Cropanzano et al. 1992).”
Background
The role of daily autonomous and controlled educational goals in students’ academic emotion states: An experience sampling method approach
Ketonen, E. E., Dietrich, J., Moeller, J., Salmela‐Aro, K., & Lonka, K. (2017) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2017.07.003 · Cited by 103
“Typical appraisals include value, expectancy, or temporal range (Austin & Vancouver, 1996).”
Background
Don’t Get It Misconstrued: Executive Construal-Level Shifts and Flexibility in the Upper Echelons
Steinbach, A. L., Gamache, D. L., & Johnson, R. E. (2018) · Academy of Management Review · doi:10.5465/amr.2017.0273 · Cited by 97
“1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 14 falls short of one’s goal; Austin & Vancouver, 1996; Johnson, Chang, & Lord, 2006).”
Women's and men's personal goals during the transition to parenthood.
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“Personal goals and projects Motivation plays an important role in the ways in which individuals direct their behaviour in different situations, and also in their efforts to change their behaviour (Austin & Vancouver, 1996; Karniol & Ross, 1996).”
Background
From motivation and cognition theories to everyday applications and back again: the case of product-integrated information and feedback
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“Several authors have proposed catalogues of goals that more realistically capture the motives people usually ascribe to their actions (see Austin & Vancouver, 1996, for an overview).”
Background
Habit Formation and Multiple Means to Goal Attainment: Repeated Retrieval of Target Means Causes Inhibited Access to Competitors
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A scalable goal-setting intervention closes both the gender and ethnic minority achievement gap
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Goal pursuit: Current state of affairs and directions for future research.
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“…to make, as some previous theory and research has equated having a goal with general behavior, innate biological responses (e.g., neurons firing; Austin & Vancouver, 1996), or even going so far as to say, “in some sense, the endpoint of every action, however minute, is a goal” (Beach, 1985, p.…”
Background
Energization and Direction Are Both Essential Parts of Motivation
Elliot, A. J. (2023) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780197662359.003.0002 · Cited by 91
The Dynamics of Goal Revision: A Cybernetic Multiperiod Test-Operate-Test-Adjust-Loop (TOTAL) Model of Self-Regulation
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“Most previous research on goal-directed behaviors has focused on a static snapshot in time, looking at behaviors directed toward a fixed goal (Austin and Vancouver 1996; Carver and Scheier 1981; Locke and Latham 1990).”
Relating goal orientation to self-regulatory processes: A longitudinal field test
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Fragebogen zur Analyse Motivationaler Schemata (FAMOS)
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Goal setting among adolescents: A comparison of delinquent, at-risk, and not-at-risk youth.
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Age-related differences in outcome and process goal focus
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“Moreover, research suggests that goal pursuit enhances performance (e.g., Austin & Vancouver, 1996; Emmons, 1996; Freund, 2006b).”
Background
Get a Taste of Your Goals: Promoting Motive–Goal Congruence Through Affect‐Focus Goal Fantasy
Job, V., & Brandstätter, V. (2009) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2009.00591.x · Cited by 100
Management dynamics in the knowledge economy
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Self-citation
Psychology and social networks: A dynamic network theory perspective.
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Social Context and Advertising Memory
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“In contrast, process goals are “broad” concerns and are “always subject to discrepancies” (Austin and Vancouver 1996, p. 344); they are not confined to a specific performance episode, but they are more a lingering background motivation.”
Background
School Adjustment
Wentzel, K. R. (2003) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/0471264385.wei0711 · Cited by 88
Do teachers' achievement goals and self-efficacy beliefs matter for students’ learning experiences? Evidence from two studies on perceived teaching quality and emotional experiences
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Street, H. (2002) · Australian Psychologist · doi:10.1080/00050060210001706736 · Cited by 87
Der Inkongruenzfragebogen (INK)
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Search, interrupted
Agichtein, E., White, R. W., Dumais, S., & Bennett, P. N. (2012) · International ACM SIGIR Conference on Research and Development in Information Retrieval (SIGIR) · doi:10.1145/2348283.2348328 · Cited by 87
“Austin and Vancouver [4] review the theoretical development of the structure and properties of goals, goal establishment and striving processes, and goal-content taxonomies, which we use to motivate the selection of task dimensions to analyze.”
Background
Self‐Regulatory Processes and Responses to Health Threats: Effects of Optimism on Well‐Being
Scheier, M. F., & Carver, C. S. (2003) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9780470753552.ch15 · Cited by 87
An integrative model for understanding the sustainable entrepreneurs’ behavioural intentions: an empirical study of the Italian context
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Why do newcomers participate in virtual communities? An integration of self-determination and relationship management theories
Tsai, H.-T., & Pai, P. (2013) · Decision Support Systems · doi:10.1016/j.dss.2013.09.001 · Cited by 89
Tasks Interrupted: How Anticipating Time Pressure on Resumption of an Interrupted Task Causes Attention Residue and Low Performance on Interrupting Tasks and How a “Ready-to-Resume” Plan Mitigates the Effects
Leroy, S., & Glomb, T. M. (2018) · Organization Science · doi:10.1287/orsc.2017.1184 · Cited by 98
Achievement Goals
Murayama, K., Elliot, A. J., & Friedman, R. (2012) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195399820.013.0012 · Cited by 86
A Taxonomy of Motivational Affordances for Meaningful Gamified and Persuasive Technologies
Weiser, P., Bucher, D., Cellina, F., & Luca, V. D. (2015) · Advances in computer science research · doi:10.2991/ict4s-env-15.2015.31 · Cited by 81
Career decidedness as a predictor of subjective well-being
Uthayakumar, R., Schimmack, U., Hartung, P. J., & Rogers, J. R. (2010) · Journal of Vocational Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.jvb.2010.07.002 · Cited by 84
“Goals denote “internal representations of desired states” (Austin & Vancouver, 1996, p. 338) and assume particular importance in terms of developmental or life tasks, conceived of as goals that are personally meaningful, culturally valued, and age appropriate for one's developmental stage (Cantor &…”
Background
Neural Correlates of Promotion and Prevention Goal Activation: An fMRI Study using an Idiographic Approach
Eddington, K. M., Dolcos, F., Cabeza, R. E. L., Krishnan, K. R., & Strauman, T. J. (2007) · Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience · doi:10.1162/jocn.2007.19.7.1152 · Cited by 91
“In an influential review, Austin and Vancouver (1996) conceptualized goals as internal representations of desired states and identified approach and avoidance goals as among the most important classes of goals.”
Background
Integrating self-regulation theories of work motivation into a dynamic process theory
Vancouver, J. B. (2008) · Human Resource Management Review · doi:10.1016/j.hrmr.2008.02.001 · Cited by 91
“Internally represented desired states are called goals in psychology (Austin & Vancouver,1996); hence, human self-regulation theories are those that attempt to describe the consequences or processes of goal striving (Kanfer, 1990).”
BackgroundMethodSelf-citation
A Theory of Moral Praise
Anderson, R. A., Crockett, M. J., & Pizarro, D. A. (2020) · Trends in Cognitive Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.tics.2020.06.008 · Cited by 93
Coping, Goal Adjustment, and Psychological Well-Being in HIV-Infected Men Who Have Sex with Men
Kraaij, V., van der Veek, S., Garnefski, N., Schroevers, M. J., Witlox, R., & Maes, S. (2008) · AIDS Patient Care and STDs · doi:10.1089/apc.2007.0145 · Cited by 86
“17 Goals provide the structure that define people’s life and imbue life with purpose.”
Competing for attentional priority: Temporary goals versus threats.
Vogt, J., Houwer, J. D., Crombez, G., & Damme, S. V. (2012) · Emotion · doi:10.1037/a0027204 · Cited by 93
“Temporary goals can be understood as the cognitive representation of a desired end state that an individual aims to achieve (Austin & Vancouver, 1996).”
Background
Work Conditions and Employees’ Self-Set Goals: Goal Processes Enhance Prediction of Psychological Distress and Well-Being
Pomaki, G., Maes, S., & ter Doest, L. (2004) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167204263970 · Cited by 90
“Within the goal literature, there is a growing body of research related to self-set goals (Austin & Vancouver, 1996), but few studies have yet attempted to relate selfset goals to employee well-being.”
Background
The role of goal cognitions, illness perceptions and treatment beliefs in self-reported adherence after kidney transplantation: A cohort study
Massey, E. K., Tielen, M., Laging, M., Beck, D. K., Khemai, R., van Gelder, T., & Weimar, W. W. (2013) · Journal of Psychosomatic Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2013.07.006 · Cited by 82
“Self-regulation theory stipulates that all behaviour is goal-directed [23].”
Background
Beyond priming effects: The role of positive affect and discrepancies in implicit processes of motivation and goal pursuit
Custers, R., & Aarts, H. (2005) · European Review of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/10463280500435919 · Cited by 88
“In everyday life, people often have to react to arising discrepancies with goal states that they desire to maintain over time (see e.g., Austin & Vancouver, 1996; Boldero & Francis, 2002).”
Background
Hot pursuit: The affective consequences of organization-set versus self-set goals for emotional exhaustion and citizenship behavior.
Welsh, D. T., Baer, M. D., & Sessions, H. (2019) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/apl0000429 · Cited by 88
Why mentor? Linking mentor teachers’ motivations to their mentoring conceptions
van Ginkel, G., Verloop, N., & Denessen, E. J. P. G. (2015) · Teachers and Teaching · doi:10.1080/13540602.2015.1023031 · Cited by 83
“Choosing to become and remain a mentor teacher can thus be seen as a form of goal-directed behaviour: as behaviour that is driven by some internal representation of a desired outcome or state (Austin & Vancouver, 1996).”
Background
Personal best goals and academic and social functioning: A longitudinal perspective
Liem, G. A. D., Ginns, P., Martin, A. J., Stone, B. L., & Herrett, M. (2011) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2011.11.003 · Cited by 85
Advancing Our Understanding of Team Motivation
Park, G., Spitzmüller, M., & DeShon, R. P. (2013) · Journal of Management · doi:10.1177/0149206312471389 · Cited by 93
“Goals are defined as “internal representations of desired states where states are broadly construed as outcomes, events, or processes” (Austin & Vancouver, 1996: 338).”
On the role of goal relevance in emotional attention: Disgust evokes early attention to cleanliness
Vogt, J., Lozo, L., Koster, E. H. W., & Houwer, J. D. (2010) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699931.2010.532613 · Cited by 80
“A goal representation can be understood as the mental representation of a desired end state that an individual aims to achieve (Austin & Vancouver, 1996).”
The Effect of Goal Conflict on Performance
Slocum, J., Cron, W., & Brown, S. P. (2002) · Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies · doi:10.1177/107179190200900106 · Cited by 88
“literature, goal theory has emerged as one of the most valid approaches to understanding the process of motivation (Austin and Vancouver, 1996).”
Background
Linking Possible Selves and Behavior: Do Domain-Specific Hopes and Fears Translate Into Daily Activities in Very Old Age?
Hoppmann, C. A., Gerstorf, D., Smith, J., & Klumb, P. L. (2007) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/62.2.p104 · Cited by 79
“From a theoretical point of view, possible selves operate at a high level of abstraction and do not change very quickly because they involve many lower level goals (Austin & Vancouver, 1996).”
Background

Authors: Austin, J. T., & Vancouver, J. B.
Affiliations: The Ohio State University (US)
ORCID: Vancouver, Jeffrey B.
Venue: Psychological Bulletin
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 1996-11
Volume: 120
Issue: 3
Pages: 338-375
ISSN: 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
1939-1455
DOI: 10.1037/0033-2909.120.3.338
OpenAlex: W2075289001
Semantic Scholar: 0539efa59c31b4c9b22f866f1b3c65eedb554856
Cited by: 2,319
References: 474
Citations by year: 2026: 62 · 2025: 76 · 2024: 76 · 2023: 224 · 2022: 90 · 2021: 108 · 2020: 148 · 2019: 93 · 2018: 89 · 2017: 110 · 2016: 93 · 2015: 117 · 2014: 85 · 2013: 94 · 2012: 118
FWCI: 23.42
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Behavioral Health and Interventions
Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Education, Achievement, and Giftedness
Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Cognitive and psychological constructs research
Keywords: goal setting, goal structure, goal content, motivation, achievement motivation

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