Cited by 2,429Evolutionary Psychology and Human BehaviorPersonality Traits and PsychologyAesthetic Perception and Analysis

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Maxims or myths of beauty? A meta-analytic and theoretical review

Langlois, Judith H., Kalakanis, Lisa, Rubenstein, Adam J., Larson, Andrea, Hallam, Monica, Smoot, Monica·2000·Psychological Bulletin

DOI 10.1037/0033-2909.126.3.390

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Abstract

Common maxims about beauty suggest that attractiveness is not important in life. In contrast, both fitness-related evolutionary theory and socialization theory suggest that attractiveness influences development and interaction. In 11 meta-analyses, the authors evaluate these contradictory claims, demonstrating that (a) raters agree about who is and is not attractive, both within and across cultures; (b) attractive children and adults are judged more positively than unattractive children and adults, even by those who know them; (c) attractive children and adults are treated more positively than unattractive children and adults, even by those who know them; and (d) attractive children and adults exhibit more positive behaviors and traits than unattractive children and adults. Results are used to evaluate social and fitness-related evolutionary theories and the veracity of maxims about beauty.

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Poutvaara, P. (2014) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2014.08.003 · Cited by 39
I Did It Because I Never Stopped Loving You: The Effects of Media Portrayals of Persistent Pursuit on Beliefs About Stalking
Lippman, J. R. (2015) · Communication Research · doi:10.1177/0093650215570653 · Cited by 50
“Finally, because we tend to believe that “what is beautiful is good” (Dion, Berscheid, & Walster, 1972; Langlois et al., 2000), it is possible that the physical attractiveness of depicted actors might explain the effect of condition on stalking myth endorsement.”
Background
Why Do Better-Looking Members of Congress Receive More Television Coverage?
Waismel-Manor, I., & Tsfati, Y. (2011) · Political Communication · doi:10.1080/10584609.2011.617719 · Cited by 44
“As Langlois et al. (2000) explain, the cultural and biological theories are not necessarily mutually exclusive, and may be operating simultaneously.”
BackgroundResultInfluential
Nasofacial angle and nasal prominence: A quantitative investigation of idealized and normative values
Naini, F. B., Cobourne, M. T., Garagiola, U. M., McDonald, F., & Wertheim, D. F. (2016) · Journal of Cranio-Maxillofacial Surgery · doi:10.1016/j.jcms.2016.01.010 · Cited by 38
“The Likert-type rating scale used is largely accepted in the psychology literature as the most useful rating method (Langlois et al., 2000).”
Method
What sounds beautiful looks beautiful stereotype: The matching of attractiveness of voices and faces
Hughes, S. M., & Miller, N. E. (2015) · Journal of Social and Personal Relationships · doi:10.1177/0265407515612445 · Cited by 42
“…with physically attractive individuals include intellectual competence (Jackson, Hunter, & Hodge, 1995), greater popularity (Krantz, 1987), social competence (Goldman & Lewis, 1977), and a variety of other positive personality traits (for reviews see Langlois et al., 2000; Mckelvie, 1993).”
Background
The many faces of a face: Comparing stills and videos of facial expressions in eight dimensions (SAVE database)
Garrido, M. V., Lopes, D., Prada, M., Rodrigues, D. L., Jerónimo, R., & Mourão, R. P. (2016) · Behavior Research Methods · doi:10.3758/s13428-016-0790-5 · Cited by 44
“Presentation format might thus affect the amount of information that is retrieved from a given stimulus (e.g., Langlois et al., 2000).”
Background
Efficacy and tolerance of an injectable medical device containing stable hybrid cooperative complexes of high- and low-molecular-weight hyaluronic acid: a monocentric 16 weeks open-label evaluation
Sparavigna, A., & Tenconi, B. (2016) · Clinical Cosmetic and Investigational Dermatology · doi:10.2147/ccid.s114450 · Cited by 38
Mentolabial angle and aesthetics: a quantitative investigation of idealized and normative values
Naini, F. B., Cobourne, M. T., Garagiola, U. M., McDonald, F., & Wertheim, D. F. (2017) · Maxillofacial Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery · doi:10.1186/s40902-017-0102-8 · Cited by 38
“The Likert-type rating scale used is largely accepted in the psychology literature as the most useful rating method [9].”
Method
Role of facial attractiveness in patients with slight-to-borderline treatment need according to the Aesthetic Component of the Index of Orthodontic Treatment Need as judged by eye tracking
Johnson, E. K., Fields, H. W., Beck, F. M., Firestone, A. R., & Rosenstiel, S. (2017) · American Journal of Orthodontics and Dentofacial Orthopedics · doi:10.1016/j.ajodo.2016.06.037 · Cited by 38
Self-Objectification and Personal Values. An Exploratory Study
Rollero, C., & Piccoli, N. D. (2017) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01055 · Cited by 50
“Indeed, although beauty has been shown to play a key role in the consideration of both men and women (Langlois et al., 2000), traditionally women, more often than men, are socialized to the importance of “working on” their appearance and receive real reward that stem from fitting societal standards of beauty (Fredrick…”
Background
Lookism hurts: appearance discrimination and self-rated health in South Korea
Lee, H., Son, I., Yoon, J., & Kim, S.-S. (2017) · International Journal for Equity in Health · doi:10.1186/s12939-017-0678-8 · Cited by 48
“Although physical attractiveness has no consensus definition, there is a universal idea of physical attractiveness irrespective of cultural background [34, 35].”
Background
Beauty still matters: The role of attractiveness in labour market outcomes
Anýžová, P., & Matějů, P. (2018) · International Sociology · doi:10.1177/0268580918760431 · Cited by 38
“…and physical attractiveness are important social phenomena has been extensively provided by economists (e.g. Hamermesh, 2011), psychologists (e.g. Byrne et al., 1968; Clifford and Walster, 1973; Dion et al., 1972; Etcoff, 1999; Langlois et al., 2000) and sociologists (e.g. Hakim, 2010, 2011).”
Background
Exploring the morphological and emotional correlates of infant cuteness.
Almanza-Sepúlveda, M. L., Dudin, A., Wonch, K., Steiner, M., Feinberg, D., Fleming, A., & Hall, G. (2018) · Infant Behavior and Development · doi:10.1016/j.infbeh.2018.08.001 · Cited by 35
Cosmetic camouflage improves quality of life among patients with skin disfigurement: A systematic review
Kornhaber, R. A., Visentin, D. C., Thapa, D. K., West, S., Kittrick, A. M., Haik, J., & Cleary, M. L. (2018) · Body Image · doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2018.08.004 · Cited by 41
Aesthetically (dis)pleasing visuals: A dual pathway to empathy and prosocial behavior
Grinstein, A., Hagtvedt, H., & Kronrod, A. (2018) · International Journal of Research in Marketing · doi:10.1016/j.ijresmar.2018.09.003 · Cited by 40
Effects of the new COVID-19 normal on customer satisfaction: Can facemasks level off the playing field between average-looking and attractive-looking employees?
Wu, G., Liang, L., & Gürsoy, D. (2021) · International Journal of Hospitality Management · doi:10.1016/j.ijhm.2021.102996 · Cited by 43
Red, Yellow, and Super-White Sclera: Uniquely Human Cues for Healthiness, Attractiveness, and Age
Provine, R. R., Cabrera, M. O., & Nave-Blodgett, J. E. (2013) · Human Nature · doi:10.1007/s12110-013-9168-x · Cited by 39
The “Beauty Myth” Is No Myth
Gottschall, J., & Kacey Anderson, C. B. (2008) · Human Nature · doi:10.1007/s12110-008-9035-3 · Cited by 38
“A spate of recent studies has strongly challenged one major component of Wolf’s beauty myth—the notion that there are no standards of physical attractiveness that transcend local cultural norms (for major meta-analyses see Feingold 1992; Langlois et al. 2000; for major review articles see Gangestad and Scheyd 2005; Rh…”
Background
What People Look at in Multimodal Online Dating Profiles: How Pictorial and Textual Cues Affect Impression Formation
van der Zanden, T., Mos, M., Schouten, A. P., & Krahmer, E. (2021) · Communication Research · doi:10.1177/0093650221995316 · Cited by 44
“Studies have shown that beauty captures attention: the more attractive the face, the more and longer people look at it (e.g., Langlois et al., 2000; Leder et al., 2016; Maner et al., 2003; Valuch et al., 2015).”
Background
Beautify the blurry self: Low self‐concept clarity increases appearance management
Wang, J., & Yu, Y. (2022) · Journal of Consumer Psychology · doi:10.1002/jcpy.1298 · Cited by 45
Understanding and Mapping Natural Beauty
Workman, S., Souvenir, R., & Jacobs, N. (2017) · IEEE/CVF International Conference on Computer Vision (ICCV) · doi:10.1109/iccv.2017.596 · Cited by 41
“Despite the popularity of the saying “beauty lies in the eye of the beholder,” research shows that beauty is not purely subjective [12].”
Background
The scent of attractiveness: levels of reproductive hormones explain individual differences in women's body odour
Lobmaier, J. S., Fischbacher, U., Wirthmüller, U., & Knoch, D. (2018) · Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · doi:10.1098/rspb.2018.1520 · Cited by 37
Swiping right: face perception in the age of Tinder
Rosa, A. O. L., Tobón, O. E. A., & Ingram, G. (2019) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2019.e02949 · Cited by 42
Meeting Your Match: How Attractiveness Similarity Affects Approach Behavior in Mixed-Sex Dyads
van Straaten, I., Engels, R. C. M. E., Finkenauer, C., & Holland, R. W. (2009) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167209332965 · Cited by 40
Integrating body movement into attractiveness research
Fink, B., Weege, B., Neave, N., Pham, M. N., & Shackelford, T. K. (2015) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00220 · Cited by 41
“In a meta-analysis, Langlois et al. (2000) concluded that there is variability in the results of attractiveness research with regard to the use of stimuli types (i.e., photographs, videos, and in situ encounters) and that this variability could produce different attractiveness judgments.”
Background
Physical Attractiveness, Altruism and Cooperation in an Ultimatum Game
Bhogal, M. S., Galbraith, N. D., & Manktelow, K. I. (2016) · Current Psychology · doi:10.1007/s12144-016-9443-1 · Cited by 40
Children's Facial Trustworthiness Judgments: Agreement and Relationship with Facial Attractiveness
Ma, F., Xu, F., & Luo, X. (2016) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00499 · Cited by 38
Analyses of Facial Attractiveness on Feminised and Juvenilised Faces
Ishi, H., Gyoba, J., Kamachi, M., Mukaida, S., & Akamatsu, S. (2004) · Perception · doi:10.1068/p3301 · Cited by 37
Male Production of Humor Produced by Sexually Selected Psychological Adaptations
Greengross, G. (2014) · Evolutionary psychology · doi:10.1007/978-1-4939-0314-6_9 · Cited by 36
What's Wrong with Lookism? Personal Appearance, Discrimination, and Disadvantage
Mason, A. S. (2023) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780192859792.001.0001 · Cited by 37
Why is low waist-to-chest ratio attractive in males? The mediating roles of perceived dominance, fitness, and protection ability
Coy, A. E., Green, J. D., & Price, M. E. (2014) · Body Image · doi:10.1016/j.bodyim.2014.04.003 · Cited by 45
“A related reason why attractive men could make more promising mates is because they tend to attain high social status (Langlois et al., 2000; Lukaszewski, 2013), which could further enhance their access to resources and ability to provide parental investment.”
Geographic Variation in Chin Shape Challenges the Universal Facial Attractiveness Hypothesis
Thayer, Z. M., & Dobson, S. D. (2013) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0060681 · Cited by 36
“These studies have shown that people from culturally diverse backgrounds tend to regard similar facial phenotypes as attractive [13–15], regardless of prior exposure to Western concepts of beauty [6,16,17].”
Background
Don’t hate me because I’m beautiful: Acknowledging appearance mitigates the “beauty is beastly” effect
Johnson, S. K., Sitzmann, T., & Nguyen, A. T. (2014) · Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes · doi:10.1016/j.obhdp.2014.09.006 · Cited by 36
The Importance of Perceptual Experience in the Esthetic Appreciation of the Body
Mele, S., Cazzato, V., & Urgesi, C. (2013) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0081378 · Cited by 36
“The average face may be preferred because we have a stronger feeling of familiarity with it, since any indications of individuality and uniqueness are dispersed [24].”
Background
Who prefers renewable energy? A moderated mediation model including perceived comfort and consumers’ protected values in green energy adoption and willingness to pay a premium
Loaiza-Ramírez, J. P., Reimer, T. O., & Moreno-Mantilla, C. E. (2022) · Energy Research & Social Science · doi:10.1016/j.erss.2022.102753 · Cited by 39
Estimating the Sex-Specific Effects of Genes on Facial Attractiveness and Sexual Dimorphism
Mitchem, D. G., Purkey, A., Grebe, N. M., Carey, G., Garver‐Apgar, C. E., Bates, T. C., Arden, R., Hewitt, J. K., Medland, S. E., Martin, N. G., et al. (2013) · Behavior Genetics · doi:10.1007/s10519-013-9627-5 · Cited by 37
“No special instructions were given to judges before rating Attractiveness, because reliability and validity of facial attractiveness ratings are supported in the literature (Langlois et al. 2000).”
Background
Effects of Partner Beauty on Opposite-Sex Attractiveness Judgments
Little, A. C., Caldwell, C. A., Jones, B. C., & DeBruine, L. M. (2011) · Archives of Sexual Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10508-011-9806-5 · Cited by 36
“Indeed, previous studies show much agreement between men and women on attractiveness judgments (Langlois et al., 2000), which further suggests that participants did not rate same-sex faces randomly.”

Authors: Langlois, J. H., Kalakanis, L., Rubenstein, A. J., Larson, A., Hallam, M., & Smoot, M.
Affiliations: The University of Texas at Austin (US)
Venue: Psychological Bulletin
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 2000
Volume: 126
Issue: 3
Pages: 390-423
ISSN: 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
1939-1455
DOI: 10.1037/0033-2909.126.3.390
OpenAlex: W2088165831
Cited by: 2,429
References: 297
Citations by year: 2026: 84 · 2025: 105 · 2024: 111 · 2023: 131 · 2022: 116 · 2021: 148 · 2020: 127 · 2019: 131 · 2018: 132 · 2017: 118 · 2016: 126 · 2015: 135 · 2014: 121 · 2013: 129 · 2012: 138
FWCI: 20.60
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders: Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (R01HD021332)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Evolutionary Psychology and Human Behavior
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Aesthetic Perception and Analysis
Keywords: physical attractiveness, beauty, attractiveness judgments, evolutionary psychology, socialization theory
MeSH terms: Adult, Animals, Beauty, Child, Biological Evolution, Female, Humans, Interpersonal Relations, Male, Self Concept, Social Behavior, Social Perception

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Maxims or myths of beauty? A meta-analytic and theoretical review

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