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When and where do we apply what we learn?: A taxonomy for far transfer
Abstract
Despite a century's worth of research, arguments surrounding the question of whether far transfer occurs have made little progress toward resolution. The authors argue the reason for this confusion is a failure to specify various dimensions along which transfer can occur, resulting in comparisons of "apples and oranges." They provide a framework that describes 9 relevant dimensions and show that the literature can productively be classified along these dimensions, with each study situated at the intersection of various dimensions. Estimation of a single effect size for far transfer is misguided in view of this complexity. The past 100 years of research shows that evidence for transfer under some conditions is substantial, but critical conditions for many key questions are untested.
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“First, transfer is much more likely under conditions where trained and untrained activities share many features (near transfer) than few (far transfer, Barnett & Ceci, 2002; Noack, Lövdén, Schmiedek, & Lindenberger, 2009).”
From Working memory training involves learning new skills (2019) · cites this paper as Barnett & Ceci, 2002
In the citing paper
“However, it may be that such transfer requires variability in training (Barnett & Ceci, 2002;Schmidt & Bjork, 1992) as most other studies using this form of working-memory training have used at least two variants of the tasks.”
From A simultaneous examination of two forms of working memory training: Evidence for near transfer only (2016) · cites this paper as Barnett & Ceci, 2002
In the citing paper
“The magnitude of transfer, when such was reported, is usually small, and is difficult to dissociate from a null result, since it is not resilient to correction for multiple comparisons.”
From Training-induced improvement in working memory tasks results from switching to efficient strategies (2021) · cites this paper as Barnett & Ceci, 2002
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“dexterity), suggesting an expectation of ‘far’ transfer [35] between tasks that are not very similar [20, 36, 37].”
BackgroundCognitive Training: Transfer Beyond the Laboratory?
Lintern, G., & Boot, W. R. (2019) · Human Factors The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society · doi:10.1177/0018720819879814 · Cited by 28
“Contemporary treatments of transfer typically ignore the skillful elements of cognition that support complex, dynamic action skills (e.g., Barnett & Ceci, 2002; Bransford & Schwartz, 1999; Singley & Anderson, 1989).”
BackgroundFacilitating transfer through incorrect examples and explanatory feedback
Corral, D., & Carpenter, S. K. (2020) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1177/1747021820909454 · Cited by 26
Human capital versus signaling is empirically unresolvable
Huntington‐Klein, N. (2020) · Empirical Economics · doi:10.1007/s00181-020-01837-z · Cited by 35
Olesen, K. B., Christensen, M. K., & O’Neill, L. D. (2020) · Higher Education Skills and Work-based Learning · doi:10.1108/heswbl-01-2020-0012 · Cited by 26
Dorsolateral Prefrontal Functional Connectivity Predicts Working Memory Training Gains
Faraza, S., Waldenmaier, J., Dyrba, M., Wolf, D. G. F., Fischer, F. U., Knaepen, K., Kollmann, B., Tüscher, O., Binder, H., Mierau, A., et al. (2021) · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · doi:10.3389/fnagi.2021.592261 · Cited by 26
“Based on the temporal context of transfer of gains (Barnett and Ceci, 2002), a shorter time period between training and cognitive measurement could have a stronger impact on the maintenance of gains rather than ameasurement fewmonths after the training.”
BackgroundRational Number Interventions for Students With Mathematics Difficulties: A Meta-Analysis
Rojo, M., King, S. G., Gersib, J. A., & Bryant, D. P. (2022) · Remedial and Special Education · doi:10.1177/07419325221105520 · Cited by 26
“Students have previously struggled to apply newly acquired mathematics skills to different settings (Barnett & Ceci, 2002); however, aiding students in applying learned material to different situations can foster real-world application (Boaler, 1993).”
BackgroundHeterogeneous transfer learning for activity recognition using heuristic search techniques
Feuz, K., & Cook, D. J. (2014) · International Journal of Pervasive Computing and Communications · doi:10.1108/ijpcc-03-2014-0020 · Cited by 27
Davids, A. I. R., den Bossche, P. V., Gijbels, D., & Garrido, M. F. (2016) · Vocations and Learning · doi:10.1007/s12186-016-9168-1 · Cited by 26
Fricke, M., Morawietz, C., Wunderlich, A., Muehlbauer, T., Jansen, C.-P., Gramann, K., & Wollesen, B. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.867987 · Cited by 25
A Theory of Knowledge Revision: The Development of the KReC Framework
Kendeou, P. (2024) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-024-09885-y · Cited by 26
“Even though transfer is highly desirable in education settings, it is also very difficult to achieve (Barnett & Ceci, 2002).”
The Evolving Definition of Cognitive Readiness for Military Operations
Fletcher, J. D., & Wind, A. P. (2014) · Teaching and Measuring Cognitive Readiness · doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-7579-8_2 · Cited by 26
“We recognize that far transfer, where more abstract, analogous reasoning fi nds application, may be closer to Problem Solving than near transfer, which depends more on specifi c, concrete elements common to both settings (e.g., Barnet & Ceci, 2002 ).”
BackgroundThielsch, M. T., Haines, R. P., & Flacke, L. (2019) · PeerJ · doi:10.7717/peerj.6516 · Cited by 27
“Heidig, Müller & Reichelt (2015) presume design aesthetics to positively influence a learner’s intrinsic motivation, which is in turn necessary in a transfer task (see Barnett & Ceci, 2002, for a detailed overview on transfer).”
Using Technology to Structure and Scaffold Real World Experiential Learning in Distance Education
James, N., Humez, A., & Laufenberg, P. (2020) · TechTrends · doi:10.1007/s11528-020-00515-2 · Cited by 25
Students Eat Less Meat After Studying Meat Ethics
Schwitzgebel, E., Cokelet, B., & Singer, P. (2021) · Review of Philosophy and Psychology · doi:10.1007/s13164-021-00583-0 · Cited by 30
“In general, even for more straightforwardly applied disciplines such as basic physics and mathematics, students often fail to transfer knowledge acquired in the classroom to analogous life situations (Barnett and Ceci 2002; Perkins and Salomon 2012; Richland et al. 2012; Caplan 2018).”
BackgroundVernucci, S., Juric, L. C., & Richard’s, M. M. (2022) · Psychological Research · doi:10.1007/s00426-022-01647-1 · Cited by 32
Are flipped classrooms less stressful and more successful? An experimental study on college students
Aydın, B., & Demirer, V. (2022) · International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education · doi:10.1186/s41239-022-00360-8 · Cited by 25
“…home…” Although the success of the course was high in favor of the experimental group, the reason why the group performances regarding material development scores were similar may be due to the fact that learning transfer is a very difficult process (Barnett & Ceci, 2002; Perkins & Salomon, 1992).”
ResultMasri, A. A. A. (2014) · Cited by 25
Metadata
- Authors
- Barnett, S. M., & Ceci, S. J.
- Affiliations
- Cornell University (US)
- ORCID
- Ceci, Stephen J.
- Venue
- Psychological Bulletin
- Published
- 2002
- Volume
- 128
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 612-637
- ISSN
- 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1455
- OpenAlex
- W2094192576
- Semantic Scholar
- e43a3199d5f9070f595c7f37dcc71f17589bbab9
- Cited by
- 2,076
- References
- 126
- Citations by year
- 2026: 165 · 2025: 123 · 2024: 128 · 2023: 116 · 2022: 121 · 2021: 129 · 2020: 166 · 2019: 163 · 2018: 88 · 2017: 94 · 2016: 112 · 2015: 72 · 2014: 99 · 2013: 100 · 2012: 79
- FWCI
- 6.62
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Human Resource Development and Performance Evaluation
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Educational and Psychological Assessments
- Keywords
- far transfer, transfer of learning, effect size estimation
- MeSH terms
- Attention, Child, Concept Formation, Generalization, Psychological, Humans, Learning, Mental Recall, Transfer, Psychology
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