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When and where do we apply what we learn?: A taxonomy for far transfer
Abstract
Despite a century's worth of research, arguments surrounding the question of whether far transfer occurs have made little progress toward resolution. The authors argue the reason for this confusion is a failure to specify various dimensions along which transfer can occur, resulting in comparisons of "apples and oranges." They provide a framework that describes 9 relevant dimensions and show that the literature can productively be classified along these dimensions, with each study situated at the intersection of various dimensions. Estimation of a single effect size for far transfer is misguided in view of this complexity. The past 100 years of research shows that evidence for transfer under some conditions is substantial, but critical conditions for many key questions are untested.
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“First, transfer is much more likely under conditions where trained and untrained activities share many features (near transfer) than few (far transfer, Barnett & Ceci, 2002; Noack, Lövdén, Schmiedek, & Lindenberger, 2009).”
From Working memory training involves learning new skills (2019) · cites this paper as Barnett & Ceci, 2002
In the citing paper
“However, it may be that such transfer requires variability in training (Barnett & Ceci, 2002;Schmidt & Bjork, 1992) as most other studies using this form of working-memory training have used at least two variants of the tasks.”
From A simultaneous examination of two forms of working memory training: Evidence for near transfer only (2016) · cites this paper as Barnett & Ceci, 2002
In the citing paper
“The magnitude of transfer, when such was reported, is usually small, and is difficult to dissociate from a null result, since it is not resilient to correction for multiple comparisons.”
From Training-induced improvement in working memory tasks results from switching to efficient strategies (2021) · cites this paper as Barnett & Ceci, 2002
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“More important, Barnett and Ceci (2002) reviewed research on transfer and concluded that, despite 100 years of research, no clear evidence has emerged, and many researchers believe there is no experimental design that can determine whether or not transfer exists (p. 634). Mayer (2004) also reviewed transfer research a…”
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“These three assumptions are verified in numerous experiments and are closely associated with Paivio’s dual coding theory (Clark and Paivio 1991; Paivio 1986), Baddeley’s model of working memory (Baddeley 1992, 1999), and Sweller’s cognitive load theory (CLT) (Sweller 1988; Sweller et al. 2011).”
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“Generally speaking, it has been stated that far transfer may be more likely if “general, deep principles” (cf. Barnett & Ceci, 2002, p. 625) are being trained.”
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“Thus, the goal is not necessarily to change values, but to help people see how their core values are relevant to specific contexts, what has been called “far transfer” of learning or productive thought (30).”
BackgroundInstructional Scaffolding in STEM Education
Belland, B. R. (2017) · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-02565-0 · Cited by 161
Ballantyne, N. (2019) · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190847289.001.0001 · Cited by 122
Training Older Adults To Use New Technology
Hickman, J. M., Rogers, W. A., & Fisk, A. D. (2007) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B · doi:10.1093/geronb/62.special_issue_1.77 · Cited by 126
Effects of Small-Group Learning on Transfer: a Meta-Analysis
Pai, H.-H., Sears, D. A., & Maeda, Y. (2015) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-014-9260-8 · Cited by 140
Improving critical thinking skills and metacognitive monitoring through direct infusion
Bensley, D. A., & Spero, R. A. (2014) · Thinking Skills and Creativity · doi:10.1016/j.tsc.2014.02.001 · Cited by 137
Kruse, P., Wach, D., & Wegge, J. (2020) · Journal of Small Business Management · doi:10.1080/00472778.2020.1844493 · Cited by 120
“It is accepted that experience facilitates learning (Barnett & Ceci, 2002), and a nascent entrepreneur can gain most benefit from past experiences that are closely related to the creation of a new venture (Dokko et al., 2009).”
BackgroundSupporting toddlers’ transfer of word learning from video
Strouse, G. A., & Troseth, G. L. (2014) · Cognitive Development · doi:10.1016/j.cogdev.2014.01.002 · Cited by 118
The challenges of reflection: students learning from work placements
Smith, K., Clegg, S., Lawrence, E., & Todd, M. J. (2007) · Innovations in Education and Teaching International · doi:10.1080/14703290701241042 · Cited by 114
“These modules encouraged a complex model of transfer which differs from those referenced in the literature (for an overview of transfer literature, see Barnett & Ceci, 2002 ).”
MethodWhy is Anatomy Difficult to Learn? The Implications for Undergraduate Medical Curricula
Cheung, C. C., Bridges, S., & Tipoe, G. L. (2021) · Anatomical Sciences Education · doi:10.1002/ase.2071 · Cited by 114
Women match men when learning a spatial skill.
Spence, I., Yu, J. J., Feng, J., & Marshman, J. (2009) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · doi:10.1037/a0015641 · Cited by 111
Reviving Inert Knowledge: Analogical Abstraction Supports Relational Retrieval of Past Events
Gentner, D., Loewenstein, J., Thompson, L., & Forbus, K. D. (2009) · Cognitive Science · doi:10.1111/j.1551-6709.2009.01070.x · Cited by 218
“Relational retrieval is important not only as part of cognitive theory but also because the failure of appropriate retrieval—the inert knowledge phenomenon—is a major challenge in research on learning, education, and conceptual change ( Barnett & Ceci, 2002; Bransford, 1979; Reeves & Weisberg, 1994; Weisberg, 1995).”
BackgroundWhat students learn from hands‐on activities
Schwichow, M., Zimmerman, C., Croker, S. J., & Härtig, H. (2016) · Journal of Research in Science Teaching · doi:10.1002/tea.21320 · Cited by 112
Focusing of visual attention at rest and during physical exercise in soccer players
Pesce, C., Tessitore, A., Casella, R., Pirritano, M., & Capranica, L. (2007) · Journal of Sports Sciences · doi:10.1080/02640410601040085 · Cited by 111
“Nevertheless, it is necessary to consider the different dimensions along which task representativeness may be defined and operationalized (Barnett & Ceci, 2002).”
BackgroundTask-based language teaching: An empirical study of task transfer
Benson, S. D. (2016) · Language Teaching Research · doi:10.1177/1362168815569829 · Cited by 109
“Although the content of the two shopping tasks and the content of the two directions tasks would be considered closer on the continuum as concerns skill and memory demands, the contexts of all four tasks (the two training tasks and the two transfer tasks) might be considered further apart on the continuum proposed by…”
BackgroundInfluentialImproving intelligence: a literature review
Buschkuehl, M., & Jaeggi, S. (2010) · Swiss Medical Weekly · doi:10.4414/smw.2010.12852 · Cited by 109
Student Attitudes Toward and Recall of Outside Day: An Environmental Science Field Trip
Nadelson, L. S., & Jordan, J. R. (2012) · The Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.1080/00220671.2011.576715 · Cited by 108
“Regardless of the continued debate over the extent to which transfer of knowledge occurs (Barnett & Ceci, 2002), there is a substantial body of evidence indicating that learning in context increases retention and transfer (Bransford et al., 2000).”
BackgroundRenshaw, I., Davids, K., Araújo, D., Lucas, A., Roberts, W., Newcombe, D. J., & Franks, B. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02468 · Cited by 117
Edelsbrunner, P. A., Simonsmeier, B. A., & Schneider, M. (2025) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-024-09982-y · Cited by 205
“When they learn a piece of knowledge in one context, they might fail to activate another piece of knowledge in their long-term memory that would be related but has been learned in a different context (Barnett & Ceci, 2002).”
Training and employee development for improved performance.
Brown, K. G., & Sitzmann, T. (2010) · American Psychological Association eBooks · doi:10.1037/12170-016 · Cited by 125
KWAN, M. Y. W., Arbour‐Nicitopoulos, K. P., Duku, E., & Faulkner, G. (2016) · Health Promotion and Chronic Disease Prevention in Canada · doi:10.24095/hpcdp.36.8.03 · Cited by 107
Kim, J. S., Burkhauser, M., Mesite, L. M., Asher, C. A., Relyea, J. E., Fitzgerald, J., & Elmore, J. (2020) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/edu0000465 · Cited by 165
Metadata
- Authors
- Barnett, S. M., & Ceci, S. J.
- Affiliations
- Cornell University (US)
- ORCID
- Ceci, Stephen J.
- Venue
- Psychological Bulletin
- Published
- 2002
- Volume
- 128
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 612-637
- ISSN
- 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1455
- OpenAlex
- W2094192576
- Semantic Scholar
- e43a3199d5f9070f595c7f37dcc71f17589bbab9
- Cited by
- 2,076
- References
- 126
- Citations by year
- 2026: 165 · 2025: 123 · 2024: 128 · 2023: 116 · 2022: 121 · 2021: 129 · 2020: 166 · 2019: 163 · 2018: 88 · 2017: 94 · 2016: 112 · 2015: 72 · 2014: 99 · 2013: 100 · 2012: 79
- FWCI
- 6.62
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Human Resource Development and Performance Evaluation
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Educational and Psychological Assessments
- Keywords
- far transfer, transfer of learning, effect size estimation
- MeSH terms
- Attention, Child, Concept Formation, Generalization, Psychological, Humans, Learning, Mental Recall, Transfer, Psychology
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
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