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When and where do we apply what we learn?: A taxonomy for far transfer
Abstract
Despite a century's worth of research, arguments surrounding the question of whether far transfer occurs have made little progress toward resolution. The authors argue the reason for this confusion is a failure to specify various dimensions along which transfer can occur, resulting in comparisons of "apples and oranges." They provide a framework that describes 9 relevant dimensions and show that the literature can productively be classified along these dimensions, with each study situated at the intersection of various dimensions. Estimation of a single effect size for far transfer is misguided in view of this complexity. The past 100 years of research shows that evidence for transfer under some conditions is substantial, but critical conditions for many key questions are untested.
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“First, transfer is much more likely under conditions where trained and untrained activities share many features (near transfer) than few (far transfer, Barnett & Ceci, 2002; Noack, Lövdén, Schmiedek, & Lindenberger, 2009).”
From Working memory training involves learning new skills (2019) · cites this paper as Barnett & Ceci, 2002
In the citing paper
“However, it may be that such transfer requires variability in training (Barnett & Ceci, 2002;Schmidt & Bjork, 1992) as most other studies using this form of working-memory training have used at least two variants of the tasks.”
From A simultaneous examination of two forms of working memory training: Evidence for near transfer only (2016) · cites this paper as Barnett & Ceci, 2002
In the citing paper
“The magnitude of transfer, when such was reported, is usually small, and is difficult to dissociate from a null result, since it is not resilient to correction for multiple comparisons.”
From Training-induced improvement in working memory tasks results from switching to efficient strategies (2021) · cites this paper as Barnett & Ceci, 2002
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BackgroundRCT of Working Memory Training in ADHD: Long-Term Near-Transfer Effects
Hovik, K. T., Saunes, B.-K., Aarlien, A. K., & Egeland, J. (2013) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0080561 · Cited by 74
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BackgroundTrumbo, M., Matzen, L. E., Coffman, B. A., Hunter, M. A., Jones, A. P., Robinson, C. S. H., & Clark, V. P. (2016) · Neuropsychologia · doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2016.10.011 · Cited by 67
“Generalizability of WM performance gains may be divided into near transfer (i.e., to a similar context) and far transfer (i.e., to a dissimilar context; Barnett and Ceci, 2002).”
BackgroundGroeger, J. A., & Banks, A. P. (2007) · Ergonomics · doi:10.1080/00140130701318723 · Cited by 65
“In response to these, the framework of Barnett and Ceci ( 2002 ) is adapted for the driving context and used to clarify the requirements for the transfer of driving skills, and the likelihood of observing this transfer.”
MethodThe Effect of Schooling on Students’ Out-of-School Experience
Pugh, K. J., & Bergin, D. A. (2005) · Educational Researcher · doi:10.3102/0013189x034009015 · Cited by 66
“When she was 11, she was baking cookies and asked her dad, “Do two one-quarters make two fourths? I know it does in math, but what about in cooking?” Some scholars (Beach, 1999; Bransford & Schwartz, 1999) have argued that the degree to which students are able to transfer learning has been underestimated because of th…”
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Bailey, H. R., Dunlosky, J. T., & Hertzog, C. K. (2009) · Gerontology · doi:10.1159/000266030 · Cited by 63
“also included an untrained criterion task (self-paced study of individual words followed by free recall), and the benefits of the metacognitive intervention that focused on training paired-associate learning did not transfer to this free-recall task. Given that transfer may be most likely when training focuses on the…”
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“The discrepancy may be explained by the transfer of knowledge, which generally refers to the degree to which knowledge acquired in one context can be transferred to another (Barnett and Ceci, 2002).”
BackgroundRenshaw, I., Davids, K., O’Sullivan, M., Maloney, M. A., Crowther, R. H., & McCosker, C. (2022) · Asian Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.ajsep.2022.04.003 · Cited by 70
“The specific effects of a practice task on athletic performance are predicated on levels of task similarity ( Barnett & Ceci, 2002 ).”
BackgroundRichey, J. E., & Nokes‐Malach, T. J. (2013) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2012.11.006 · Cited by 70
“For example, in Barnett and Ceci’s (2002) taxonomy of transfer tasks, the content of what is learned is a critical factor for determining the transfer distance between learning and test.”
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“Indeed, neither typical cognitive-experimental approaches to transfer (e.g., Barnett & Ceci, 2002; Detterman & Sternberg, 1993; Gentner et al., 1993; Singley & Anderson, 1989) nor broader conceptualizations of transfer (eg.”
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“Importantly, this result suggests that CT has the potential to achieve so-called “far-transfer” (Barnett and Ceci, 2002) to positively influence real world issues faced by TBI patients.”
BackgroundInfluentialThe benefits of testing for learning on later performance
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“Research in the literature involving transfer of learning to new scenarios, situations, and other contexts (for related taxonomies of transfer, see Barnett & Ceci, 2002; Pan & Rickard, 2018) is currently in its infancy.”
BackgroundHelp us creativity researchers, you're our only hope.
Makel, M. C. (2009) · Psychology of Aesthetics Creativity and the Arts · doi:10.1037/a0014919 · Cited by 62
Improving outcome for mental disorders by enhancing memory for treatment
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“Third, even in the absence of memory deficits, the odds are stacked against people learning, generalizing and transferring knowledge to new situat ons; this is known as the transfer of learning problem (Barnett & Ceci, 2002; Thorndike, 1932).”
Explicitly Teaching Critical Thinking Skills in a History Course
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“…a variety of new causal net elements or new readout strategies that need to be incorporated in the students’ prior causal net, broadening the span of the coordination class, and thus making transfer of conceptual knowledge easier than it usually is (Barnett and Ceci 2002; diSessa and Wagner 2005).”
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“Theoretical background There are different definitions of transfer (Barnett and Ceci, 2002).”
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“These transfer tasks can all be considered as near transfer in a similar context (Barnett & Ceci, 2002).”
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“Students tend to demonstrate near transfer much more often than far transfer (Barnett & Ceci, 2002; Hallam, 2016; Sala & Gobet, 2017).”
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“Due to the overlap in processing demands between music and language, the effects of musical training on language abilities may be considered a form of near transfer because of the relatively similar contexts surrounding music and language [50].”
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“Second, background knowledge is crucial for the successful application of skills in any domain (Barnett and Ceci 2002, p. 616), but trespassers often lack such knowledge.”
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“8The conceptual change items used in this study would be considered near transfer items in terms of the knowledge domain (and other context aspects) according to the Barnett and Ceci (2002) taxonomy.”
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“…2002), a common observation was that novice learners holding strong misconceptions often reject interventions at the early stages (Champagne, Gunstone, & Klopfer, 1985; Chi, 2005; Chi, Slotta, & De Leeuw, 1994; Lawson & Weser, 1990), or revert after change (Barnett & Ceci, 2002; Oliver, 2011).”
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Adaptive task difficulty influences neural plasticity and transfer of training
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“…in the cognitive training literature (Rangath et al., 2011; Rudebeck et al., 2012), breadth of transfer can be classified along a continuum (Barnett & Ceci, 2002) and thus skeptics may question whether far transfer to an episodic memory task supported by WMU processes is “far enough” to…”
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“In contrast to such near transfer effects, cognitive enhancement resulting from MM practice appears to demonstrate far transfer (for a taxonomy of near and far transfer, see Barnett and Ceci 2002).”
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BackgroundKim, J. S., Olson, C. B., Scarcella, R. C., Kramer, J., Pearson, M. W., van Dyk, D. A., Collins, P., & Land, R. E. (2011) · Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness · doi:10.1080/19345747.2010.523513 · Cited by 53
“First, prior research indicates that student performance is more likely to transfer within than across knowledge domains (Barnett & Ceci, 2002 ; Butterfield & Nelson, 1991 ).”
BackgroundProspective Adaptation in the Use of External Representations
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“This step is also known as the “execution process” (Barnett & Ceci, 2002).”
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“To determine what was learned we created assessments based on the transfer taxonomy proposed by Barnett and Ceci (2002).”
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“This type of transfer has been called “near transfer” [75] and means that an ability is generalized from the training task, involving different stimuli and tasks, to a more complex test task of the same functional domain.”
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“Another review of the same literature (Tobias, Fletcher, Dai, & Wind, 2011) found some evidence for near and far transfer (Barnett & Ceci, 2002) from games to external tasks if game and task called for similar cognitive processes, a finding consistent with the transfer literature generally (Mestre,…”
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“While longer term transfer is known to be difficult to measure and not frequently documented [10], research indicates that results measured by a post-test taken shortly after an educational intervention might not be maintained over a longer period of time [35].”
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“Prior exposure to test items with common structure sometimes improves performance, but appeals to transfer have proved hard to disentangle from more mundane explanations that rely on hints or implicit instructions from the researcher (7, 8).”
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“Transfer is a complex construct and is difficult to measure and test empirically (Barnett & Ceci, 2002; detterman, 1993; Salomon & Perkins, 1989).”
BackgroundWalker, C. M., Bridgers, S., & Alison Gopnik, C. (2016) · Cognition · doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2016.07.008 · Cited by 57
“…previous research examining relational reasoning in adult populations provides evidence that they hold both objects and relations in mind (e.g., Barnett & Ceci, 2002; Catrambone & Holyoak, 1989; Christie & Gentner, 2014; Christie, Gentner, Vosniadou, & Kayser, 2007; Gick & Holyoak, 1980, 1983;…”
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Dubé, A. K., & McEwen, R. N. (2015) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2015.09.002 · Cited by 55
Transfer of motor and perceptual skills from basketball to darts
Rienhoff, R., Hopwood, M. J., Fischer, L., Strauß, B., Baker, J. R., & Schorer, J. (2013) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00593 · Cited by 50
“Within this context, it should be acknowledged that the underlying mechanism of transfer is likely unique to the individual and the transfer event/domain (Rosalie and Müller, 2012) and that transfer comprises a continuum of several variables influencing its outcome (Barnett and Ceci, 2002).”
BackgroundInfluentialPrince, M. J., Vigeant, M. A.-S., & Nottis, K. E. K. (2009) · Education for Chemical Engineers · doi:10.1016/j.ece.2009.07.002 · Cited by 53
Bradley, J. L., & Conway, P. (2016) · British Educational Research Journal · doi:10.1002/berj.3232 · Cited by 62
“If transfer is influenced by differences in general cognitive capacities as discussed in Barnett and Ceci (2002) and by general non-cognitive skills as discussed in Gutman and Schoon (2013) that operate independently of context, then transfer can perhaps be considered to operate in two separate…”
InfluentialImplicit learning as a means to intuitive decision making in sports.
Raab, M., & Johnson, J. G. (2008) · Cited by 50
School Does Not Kill Creativity
Karwowski, M. (2021) · European Psychologist · doi:10.1027/1016-9040/a000449 · Cited by 51
Everyday technologies for Alzheimer's disease care: Research findings, directions, and challenges
Carrillo, M. C., Dishman, E., & Plowman, T. (2009) · Alzheimer s & Dementia · doi:10.1016/j.jalz.2009.09.003 · Cited by 49
“When this type of ‘‘taxonomy’’ is taken into account, transfer can be demonstrated [8].”
BackgroundComparing Four Instructional Techniques for Promoting Robust Knowledge
Richey, J. E., & Nokes‐Malach, T. J. (2014) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-014-9268-0 · Cited by 57
“Barnett and Ceci (2002) propose nine dimensions across which transfer distance can be measured, including factors concerning the content of what is transferred (e.g., procedures or concepts) and the context in which transfer occurs (e.g., time, modality, domain, etc.).”
BackgroundBottiroli, S., Cavallini, E., Dunlosky, J. T., Vecchi, T., & Hertzog, C. K. (2013) · Journal of Experimental Psychology Applied · doi:10.1037/a0034078 · Cited by 49
Memories as Useful Outcomes of Residential Outdoor Environmental Education
Liddicoat, K. R., & Krasny, M. E. (2014) · The Journal of Environmental Education · doi:10.1080/00958964.2014.905431 · Cited by 58
“…program, participants may employ specific transfer, non-specific transfer, and metaphoric transfer of skills as they apply their learning to new situations (see also, Barnett & Ceci, 2002), the concept of transfer is largely limited to skill acquisition and use rather than the suite of EE outcomes.”
BackgroundRogde, K., Melby‐Lervåg, M., & Lervåg, A. (2016) · Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness · doi:10.1080/19345747.2016.1171935 · Cited by 65
“Theoretically, the present study can also be related to the theory of transfer of learning (see Barnett & Ceci, 2002; Bransford & Schwartz, 1999; Carraher & Schliemann, 2002).”
BackgroundSTEM Learning and Transfer in a Children's Museum and Beyond
Marcus, M., Haden, C. A., & Uttal, D. H. (2017) · Merrill-palmer Quarterly · doi:10.13110/merrpalmquar1982.63.2.0155 · Cited by 49
“Traditionally, researchers have also distinguished near transfer from far transfer (e.g., Barnett & Ceci, 2002).”
BackgroundWhy do drivers become safer over the first three months of driving? A longitudinal qualitative study
Day, M. R., Thompson, A. R., Poulter, D. R., Stride, C., & Rowe, R. (2018) · Accident Analysis & Prevention · doi:10.1016/j.aap.2018.04.007 · Cited by 49
Williams, W. M., Papierno, P. B., Makel, M. C., & Ceci, S. J. (2003) · Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2003.11.002 · Cited by 49
Self-citationDynamic transfer and innovation
Schwartz, D. L., Varma, S., & Martin, L. (2008) · Cited by 49
Fuchs, L. S., Fuchs, D., Hamlett, C. L., & Stecker, P. M. (2021) · Journal of Learning Disabilities · doi:10.1177/0022219420950654 · Cited by 48
“Given the transfer challenges students with disabilities experience (Barnett & Ceci, 2002; D. Fuchs, Hendricks, et al., 2018; Haskell, 2001), it is not surprising that ESs for more proximal measures were stronger than for distal outcomes.”
BackgroundWeinberger, A. B., Iyer, H. N., & Green, A. E. (2016) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0150773 · Cited by 47
Mitrousias, V., Karachalios, T. S., Varitimidis, S. E., Natsis, K. S., Arvanitis, D. L., & Zibis, A. H. (2019) · Anatomical Sciences Education · doi:10.1002/ase.1911 · Cited by 48
“This finding enhances “the transfer of learning” theory (Barnett and Ceci, 2002; Saltarelli et al., 2014), namely the extent to which knowledge learned in one context is applied in another.”
BackgroundOrganizational culture for training transfer: the mediating role of motivation
Gautam, D., & Basnet, D. (2020) · International journal of organizational analysis · doi:10.1108/ijoa-04-2020-2147 · Cited by 35
Musculoskeletal anatomy: evaluation and comparison of common teaching and learning modalities
Zibis, A. H., Mitrousias, V., Varitimidis, S. E., Raoulis, V. A., Fyllos, A., & Arvanitis, D. L. (2021) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-020-80860-7 · Cited by 48
Nieswandt, M., & Bellomo, K. (2008) · Journal of Research in Science Teaching · doi:10.1002/tea.20271 · Cited by 49
From Research to Practice and Back: The Animation Tutor Project
Reed, S. K. (2005) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-005-1636-3 · Cited by 47
“An important skill in becoming a good problem solver is the ability to apply the solution of a problem to related problems (Barnett and Ceci, 2002).”
BackgroundMontuori, C., Pozzan, G., Padova, C., Ronconi, L., Vardanega, T., & Arfé, B. (2023) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci13090858 · Cited by 67
Metadata
- Authors
- Barnett, S. M., & Ceci, S. J.
- Affiliations
- Cornell University (US)
- ORCID
- Ceci, Stephen J.
- Venue
- Psychological Bulletin
- Published
- 2002
- Volume
- 128
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 612-637
- ISSN
- 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1455
- OpenAlex
- W2094192576
- Semantic Scholar
- e43a3199d5f9070f595c7f37dcc71f17589bbab9
- Cited by
- 2,076
- References
- 126
- Citations by year
- 2026: 165 · 2025: 123 · 2024: 128 · 2023: 116 · 2022: 121 · 2021: 129 · 2020: 166 · 2019: 163 · 2018: 88 · 2017: 94 · 2016: 112 · 2015: 72 · 2014: 99 · 2013: 100 · 2012: 79
- FWCI
- 6.62
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Human Resource Development and Performance Evaluation
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Educational and Psychological Assessments
- Keywords
- far transfer, transfer of learning, effect size estimation
- MeSH terms
- Attention, Child, Concept Formation, Generalization, Psychological, Humans, Learning, Mental Recall, Transfer, Psychology
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