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When and where do we apply what we learn?: A taxonomy for far transfer

Barnett, Susan M., Ceci, Stephen J.·2002·Psychological Bulletin

DOI 10.1037/0033-2909.128.4.612

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Abstract

Despite a century's worth of research, arguments surrounding the question of whether far transfer occurs have made little progress toward resolution. The authors argue the reason for this confusion is a failure to specify various dimensions along which transfer can occur, resulting in comparisons of "apples and oranges." They provide a framework that describes 9 relevant dimensions and show that the literature can productively be classified along these dimensions, with each study situated at the intersection of various dimensions. Estimation of a single effect size for far transfer is misguided in view of this complexity. The past 100 years of research shows that evidence for transfer under some conditions is substantial, but critical conditions for many key questions are untested.

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Zucker, N. L., Strauss, G. P., Smyth, J. M., Scherf, K. S., Brotman, M. A., Boyd, R. C., Choi, J., Davila, M. I., Ajilore, O., Gunning, F. M., et al. (2023) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/17456916231197980 · Cited by 20
“Using a near and far transfer design (Barnett & Ceci, 2002) may allow researchers to determine whether a generalized benefit has occurred.”
Physical Activity, Cardiorespiratory Fitness, and Cognition Across the Lifespan
McAuley, E., Mullen, S. P., & Hillman, C. H. (2013) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-6852-3_14 · Cited by 21
“This literature further extends the notion of cognitive plasticity, " near and far transfer effects " (Barnett and Ceci 2002), and the reciprocal relationship between physical activity and cognition.”
Background
Effects of transfer-oriented curriculum on multiple behaviors in the Netherlands
Peters, L. W. H., Dam, G. T. M. T., Kocken, P., Buijs, G. J., Dusseldorp, E., & Paulussen, T. G. (2013) · Health Promotion International · doi:10.1093/heapro/dat039 · Cited by 21
Learning Transfer
Chen, G., Davis, D., Hauff, C., & Houben, G. (2016) · ACM Conference on Learning @ Scale (L@S) · doi:10.1145/2876034.2876035 · Cited by 21
“This deliberately broad deﬁnition encapsulates both near transfer (to similar contexts) and far transfer (to dissimilar contexts) [4] and avoids the subjective question of how similar or diﬀerent the learning context is from the target context, as we are only concerned with whether the student…”
Background
Enhancing Cognitive Fitness in Adults
Hartman-Stein, P. E., & Rue, A. L. (2011) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-0636-6 · Cited by 43
Modelización, argumentación y transferencia de conocimiento sobre el sistema inmunológico a partir de una controversia sobre vacunación en futuros docentes
Maguregi, G., Uskola, A., & Etxaburu, B. B. (2017) · Enseñanza de las Ciencias Revista de investigación y experiencias didácticas · doi:10.5565/rev/ensciencias.2237 · Cited by 25
Comparing research productivity of returnee-PhDs in science, engineering, and the social sciences
Singh, V. (2018) · Scientometrics · doi:10.1007/s11192-018-2706-x · Cited by 20
“Doctoral training, its effect on scientific reasoning and research output (Lehman et al. 1988), and its transferability across context (Barnett and Ceci 2002) help us understand research productivity and its context-dependency (Fox and Milbourne 2006; Ramsden 1994), which in turn can inform…”
Background
Stills, not full motion, for interactive spatial training: American, Turkish and Taiwanese female pre-service teachers learn spatial visualization
Smith, G., Gerretson, H., Olkun, S., Yuan, Y., Dogbey, J. K., & Erdem, A. (2008) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2008.07.011 · Cited by 21
From Exploratory Talk to Abstract Reasoning: a Case for Far Transfer?
Webb, P., Whitlow, J. W., & Venter, D. J. L. (2016) · Educational Psychology Review · doi:10.1007/s10648-016-9369-z · Cited by 24
“Evaluating this broad goal is complex and quite difficult, but Barnett and Ceci (2002) have provided an illuminating approach that makes evaluation more manageable by framing the goals of education in terms of Btransfer of training.”
BackgroundInfluential
Higher Order Thinking in an Online World: Toward a Theory of Web-Mediated Knowledge Synthesis
Deschryver, M. (2014) · Teachers College Record The Voice of Scholarship in Education · doi:10.1177/016146811411601202 · Cited by 22
“The notion of transfer in learning is a broad concept that explores how learners apply or generalize what they have learned in similar or dissimilar contexts (Barnett & Ceci, 2002).”
Background
Improving Medical Education
Yovanoff, M., Pepley, D. F., Mirkin, K. A., Moore, J. Z., Han, D. C., & Miller, S. R. (2016) · Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting · doi:10.1177/1541931213601138 · Cited by 20
“Research suggests that near transfer of skills (transfer to similar environments) is better than far transfer of skills (transfer to different environments) (Barnett & Ceci, 2002).”
BackgroundMethod
‘Consider the Opposite’ – Effects of elaborative feedback and correct answer feedback on reducing confirmation bias – A pre-registered study
van Brussel, S., Timmermans, M., Verkoeijen, P. P. J. L., & PAAS, F. G. W. C. (2020) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101844 · Cited by 28
Narratives of teaching in outdoor and environmental education: what can we learn from a case study of outdoor education pedagogy?
Evans, N. S., & Acton, R. (2021) · Journal of Adventure Education & Outdoor Learning · doi:10.1080/14729679.2021.1902828 · Cited by 20
The effects of sexual harassment training on proximal and transfer training outcomes: A meta‐analytic investigation
Roehling, M. V., Wu, D., Choi, M. G., & Dulebohn, J. H. (2021) · Personnel Psychology · doi:10.1111/peps.12492 · Cited by 30
The Role of Learning Theory in Child-Computer Interaction - A Semi-Systematic Literature Review
Eriksson, E. W., Baykal, G. E., & Torgersson, O. (2022) · ACM International Conference on Interaction Design and Children (IDC) · doi:10.1145/3501712.3529728 · Cited by 25
“group was used, whether transfer of learning [27, 176, 288] was examined or not.”
Method
Beyond the tensions within transfer theories: implications for adaptive expertise in the health professions
Cheung, J. J. H., & Kulasegaram, K. M. (2022) · Advances in Health Sciences Education · doi:10.1007/s10459-022-10174-y · Cited by 22
“Indeed, what counts as a transfer varies widely (Barnett & Ceci, 2002).”
Background
Historical Argumentation: Watching Historians and Teaching Youth
Nokes, J. D., & Paz, S. D. L. (2023) · Written Communication · doi:10.1177/07410883221148679 · Cited by 24
“A less studied body of research focuses on contextual and social factors that 358 Written Communication 40(2) provide cuing mechanisms for the application of knowledge (Barnett & Ceci, 2002; Thorndike, 2009).”
Background
Relations between undergraduates’ self-regulated learning skill mastery during digital training and biology performance
Bernacki, M. L., Cogliano, M., Kuhlmann, S. L., Utz, J. C., Strong, C. L., Hilpert, J. C., & Greene, J. A. (2023) · Metacognition and Learning · doi:10.1007/s11409-023-09356-9 · Cited by 26
Attention computing for enhanced visuomotor skill performance: Testing the effectiveness of gaze-adaptive cues in virtual reality golf putting
Harris, D., Donaldson, R., Bray, M., Arthur, T., Wilson, M., & Vine, S. J. (2024) · Multimedia Tools and Applications · doi:10.1007/s11042-023-17973-4 · Cited by 24
“It is well-established that motor skill transfer is most pronounced when the contexts are highly similar [2], which raises an intriguing question regarding the degree of similarity between real and virtual renditions of motor skills.”
Investigating the impact of critical thinking instruction on writing performance: A multilevel modelling analysis of relative gain data in the Australian national assessment program
Normore, G. P. M., Leibovitch, Y. M., Brown, D. J., Pearson, S. G., Mazzola, C., Ellerton, P. J., & Watt, G. (2024) · Thinking Skills and Creativity · doi:10.1016/j.tsc.2024.101546 · Cited by 36
Do semantic contextual cues facilitate transfer learning from video in toddlers?
Zimmermann, L., Moser, A., Grenell, A., Dickerson, K., Yao, Q., Gerhardstein, P. C., & Barr, R. (2015) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00561 · Cited by 20
“These changes increase the transfer distance (Barnett and Ceci, 2002) between the training Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org 1 May 2015 | Volume 6 | Article 561 and test situations; that is, the degree of similarity between encoding and retrieval of new information.”
Background
Designing innovative learning environments to foster communities of learners for students in initial vocational education
Boersma, A. M. E., Dam, G. T. M. T., Wardekker, W. L., & Volman, M. L. L. (2015) · Learning Environments Research · doi:10.1007/s10984-015-9203-4 · Cited by 27
Towards learning-to-learn
Lansdell, B., & Kording, K. P. (2019) · Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.1016/j.cobeha.2019.04.005 · Cited by 22
A situated perspective on self-regulated learning from a person-by-context perspective
Ben‐Eliyahu, A. (2019) · High Ability Studies · doi:10.1080/13598139.2019.1568828 · Cited by 22
Students’ understanding of the emergent processes of natural selection: the need for ontological conceptual change
McLure, F. I., Won, M., & Treagust, D. (2020) · International Journal of Science Education · doi:10.1080/09500693.2020.1767315 · Cited by 16
Developmental differences in children’s learning and use of forensic ground rules during an interview about an experienced event.
Brown, D. A., Lewis, C. N., Lamb, M. E., Gwynne, J., Kitto, O., & Stairmand, M. (2019) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/dev0000756 · Cited by 24
“Lessons from educational and cognitive psychology about conditions that facilitate transfer of training may contribute to developing this understanding (Barnett & Ceci, 2002; Day & Goldstone, 2012; Gentner et al., 2007; Sweller et al., 1998).”
BackgroundInfluential
Web-based programmed instruction: evidence of rule-governed learning
Emurian, H. H. (2004) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2004.03.002 · Cited by 20
“We would also benefit from research that would help us to engineer tutor frames to achieve the most efficient learning and transfer, while acknowledging the methodological challenges in this important area of work (Barnett & Ceci, 2002).”
Background
Cognitive interventions for healthy older adults: A systematic meta-review
Velloso, V. F., Latgé-Tovar, S., Bomilcar, I., & Mograbi, D. C. (2025) · International Journal of Clinical and Health Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.ijchp.2024.100538 · Cited by 21
“The distinction between near and far transfer as described by Barnett and Ceci (2002) is not simple, but generally signifies the generalization of skills in similar domains/tasks, and the transfer of skills in domains/tasks that are not or very weakly related to each other.”
An Open-Source Cognitive Test Battery to Assess Human Attention and Memory
Adolphe, M., Sawayama, M., Maurel, D., Delmas, A., Oudeyer, P., & Sauzeon, H. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.880375 · Cited by 17
“Based on a task related to object tracking abilities, we used the taxonomy of Barnett and Ceci (2002) to build the assessment tool.”
Method
On the Application of Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience in Educational Environments
Leisman, G. (2022) · Brain Sciences · doi:10.3390/brainsci12111501 · Cited by 25
“of experience with a significant capacity at generalization [53,54].”

Authors: Barnett, S. M., & Ceci, S. J.
Affiliations: Cornell University (US)
ORCID: Ceci, Stephen J.
Venue: Psychological Bulletin
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 2002
Volume: 128
Issue: 4
Pages: 612-637
ISSN: 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
1939-1455
DOI: 10.1037/0033-2909.128.4.612
OpenAlex: W2094192576
Semantic Scholar: e43a3199d5f9070f595c7f37dcc71f17589bbab9
Cited by: 2,076
References: 126
Citations by year: 2026: 165 · 2025: 123 · 2024: 128 · 2023: 116 · 2022: 121 · 2021: 129 · 2020: 166 · 2019: 163 · 2018: 88 · 2017: 94 · 2016: 112 · 2015: 72 · 2014: 99 · 2013: 100 · 2012: 79
FWCI: 6.62
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Topics: Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Human Resource Development and Performance Evaluation
Social Sciences › Psychology › Developmental and Educational Psychology › Educational and Psychological Assessments
Keywords: far transfer, transfer of learning, effect size estimation
MeSH terms: Attention, Child, Concept Formation, Generalization, Psychological, Humans, Learning, Mental Recall, Transfer, Psychology

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When and where do we apply what we learn?: A taxonomy for far transfer

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