Cited by 2,378Bullying, Victimization, and AggressionPersonality Traits and PsychologyDeath Anxiety and Social Exclusion

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Relation of threatened egotism to violence and aggression: The dark side of high self-esteem.

Baumeister, Roy F., Smart, Laura, Boden, Joseph M.·1996·Psychological Review

DOI 10.1037/0033-295x.103.1.5

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Abstract

Conventional wisdom has regarded low self-esteem as an important cause of violence, but the opposite view is theoretically viable. An interdisciplinary review of evidence about aggression, crime, and violence contradicted the view that low self-esteem is an important cause. Instead, violence appears to be most commonly a result of threatened egotism--that is, highly favorable views of self that are disputed by some person or circumstance. Inflated, unstable, or tentative beliefs in the self's superiority may be most prone to encountering threats and hence to causing violence. The mediating process may involve directing anger outward as a way of avoiding a downward revision of the self-concept.

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BackgroundInfluential
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Background
Come on, give it to me baby: Self-esteem, narcissism, and endorsing sexual coercion following social rejection
Lamarche, V. M., & Seery, M. D. (2019) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2019.05.060 · Cited by 20
Role of collective self‐esteem on youth violence in a collective culture
Lim, L. L., & Chang, W. C. (2008) · International Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1080/00207590701656168 · Cited by 20
“Earlier studies have regarded low self-esteem as a powerful and dangerous cause of violence (Anderson, 1994; Jankowski, 1991; Kirschner, 1992; Renzetti, 1992; Toch, 1969/1993), while later studies have suggested that high but unstable self-esteem is the cause of violence (Baumeister et al., 1996; Kernis, 1993; Kernis,…”
Background
Irrational Beliefs and Socio-Political Extremism
Harrington, N. (2013) · Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1007/s10942-013-0168-x · Cited by 20
Is Narcissism Associated with Child Physical Abuse Risk?
Crouch, J. L., Hiraoka, R., Rutledge, E., Zengel, B. U., Skowronski, J. J., & Milner, J. S. (2015) · Journal of Family Violence · doi:10.1007/s10896-015-9672-3 · Cited by 20
“Moreover, a growing body of research links narcissism to various forms of aggression (Baumeister et al. 1996; Miller et al. 2010; Ronningstam 2005).”
Background
Dyslexia and Self-Esteem
Ridsdale, J. (2005) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/0-306-48534-6_10 · Cited by 20
Direct and indirect aggression tactics as a function of domain-specific self-esteem
Wyckoff, J. P., & Kirkpatrick, L. A. (2015) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2015.12.038 · Cited by 20
The Self as a Source of Relational Difficulties
Leary, M. R. (2002) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/152988602317319311 · Cited by 20
Narcissism and devaluing others: An exploration of impaired control over drinking as a mediating mechanism of alcohol-related problems
Naidu, E. S., Patock‐Peckham, J. A., Ruof, A. K., Bauman, D. C., Banovich, P., Frohe, T. M., & Leeman, R. F. (2018) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2018.10.039 · Cited by 20
Status consumption and charitable donations: The power of empowerment
Klucarova, S., & He, X. (2022) · Psychology and Marketing · doi:10.1002/mar.21658 · Cited by 21
How Does Family Dysfunction Influence Internet Gaming Disorder? Testing a Moderated Serial Mediation Model Among Chinese Adolescents
Gan, X., Xiang, G.-X., Jin, X., Zhu, C.-S., & Yu, C. (2022) · International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction · doi:10.1007/s11469-022-00895-x · Cited by 19
“According to the threatened egotism theory, individuals with high self-esteem tend to maintain their high level of self-esteem (Baumeister et al., 1996).”
Adolescents' Explanations for Paramilitary Involvement
Muldoon, O. T., McLaughlin, K., Rougier, N., & Trew, K. (2008) · Journal of Peace Research · doi:10.1177/0022343308094330 · Cited by 19
Dyadic accuracy and bias in preadolescents’ perceived peer relations
Morrow, M. T., Hubbard, J. A., Sallee, M. L., Barhight, L. R., Lines, M. M., & Rubin, R. M. (2015) · Journal of Social and Personal Relationships · doi:10.1177/0265407515605907 · Cited by 19
The Bond That Breaks: Closeness and Honor Predict Morality-Related Aggression
Benavidez, T. M., Neria, A. L., & Jones, D. N. (2016) · Evolutionary Psychological Science · doi:10.1007/s40806-016-0044-x · Cited by 19
“Although research is mixed as to the role that selfesteem plays in aggression in general (cf. Baumeister et al. 1996), in the case of honor and morality, low self-esteem may leave men even more vulnerable to reputational threats when compared with those high in self-esteem (Salmivalli 2001).”
Background
The Effects of Family-Centered Problem-Solving Education on Relapse Rate, Self Efficacy and Self Esteem Among Substance Abusers
Habibi, R., Nasrabadi, A. N., Shabani, M., & Amirreza, S. M. (2016) · international journal high risk behaviors & addiction · doi:10.5812/ijhrba.24421 · Cited by 19
“High self esteem is associated with greater problem-solving skills and higher ability to analyze problematic situations (14-18).”
Background
Asian Immigrants in North America with HIV/AIDS
Ullah, A. A., & Huque, A. S. (2014) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-287-119-0 · Cited by 20
Perspectives on Violence and Othering in India
(2015) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-81-322-2613-0 · Cited by 20
How negative social interactions at work seep into the home: A prosocial and an antisocial pathway
Klumb, P. L., Voelkle, M. C., & Siegler, S. (2016) · Journal of Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1002/job.2154 · Cited by 20
Self-esteem importance beliefs: A new perspective on adolescent self-esteem
Vaughan-Johnston, T., Lambe, L. J., Craig, W., & Jacobson, J. A. (2020) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/15298868.2019.1711157 · Cited by 19
Garnering the interest of others: Mediating the effects among physical attractiveness, self‐worth and dominance
Santor, D. A., & Walker, J. (1999) · British Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1348/014466699164275 · Cited by 19
Would You Buy a Used Car from a Self-enhancer? Social Benefits and Illusions in Trait Self-enhancement
Goorin, L., & Bonanno, G. A. (2009) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/15298860802501607 · Cited by 19
“This hypothesis is supported by the general association of self-enhancement with social liabilities (Baumeister, Smart, & Boden, 1996 ; Colvin et al, 1995 ) and by the specific finding that self-enhancers in this same sample were rated by their close friends as less honest and as having worsening social relations acro…”
Result
Self-esteem and delinquency in South Korean adolescents: Latent growth modeling
Lee, K.-E., & Lee, J. (2012) · School Psychology International · doi:10.1177/0143034311409856 · Cited by 18
“Also, insecure high selfesteem can be problematic, an issue that has recently been prominent in the literature on self-esteem and problem behaviors (Barry et al., 2007a; Barry et al., 2007b; Baumeister et al., 1996; Bushman et al., 2009; Ostrowsky, 2010; Thomaes, Bushman, Stegge, & Olthof, 2008).”
Background
Aggression, Self-Understanding, and Social Competence in Swiss Elementary-School Children
Malti, T. (2006) · Swiss Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1024/1421-0185.65.2.81 · Cited by 19
Situational Prevention of Violent Crime: Theory and Practice in Australia
Indermaur, D. (1999) · UWA Profiles and Research Repository (UWA) · Cited by 19
Fractal dynamics in self-evaluation reveal self-concept clarity.
Wong, A. E., Vallacher, R. R., & Nowak, A. K. (2014) · PubMed · Cited by 19
The hacker mentality : exploring the relationship between psychological variables and hacking activities
Woo, H.-J. (2003) · Cited by 19

Authors: Baumeister, R. F., Smart, L., & Boden, J. M.
Affiliations: Case Western Reserve University (US)
ORCID: Baumeister, Roy F.
Boden, Joseph M.
Venue: Psychological Review
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 1996
Volume: 103
Issue: 1
Pages: 5-33
ISSN: 0033-295X (ISSN-L)
1939-1471
DOI: 10.1037/0033-295x.103.1.5
OpenAlex: W2100354065
Cited by: 2,378
References: 183
Citations by year: 2026: 35 · 2025: 57 · 2024: 65 · 2023: 97 · 2022: 96 · 2021: 97 · 2020: 75 · 2019: 86 · 2018: 90 · 2017: 111 · 2016: 113 · 2015: 125 · 2014: 122 · 2013: 139 · 2012: 130
FWCI: 55.15
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Psychological Review (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders: National Institutes of Health (5r01mh043826-02, 5r01mh051482-03)
National Institute of Mental Health (MH 43826, MH-51482)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Bullying, Victimization, and Aggression
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Death Anxiety and Social Exclusion
Keywords: self-esteem, aggression, violence, crime, self-concept, anger
MeSH terms: Aggression, Anger, Crime, Defense Mechanisms, Dominance-Subordination, Humans, Internal-External Control, Power, Psychological, Self Concept, Violence

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Relation of threatened egotism to violence and aggression: The dark side of high self-esteem.

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