Cited by 2,378Bullying, Victimization, and AggressionPersonality Traits and PsychologyDeath Anxiety and Social Exclusion

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 181 of the 183 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.

Relation of threatened egotism to violence and aggression: The dark side of high self-esteem.

Baumeister, Roy F., Smart, Laura, Boden, Joseph M.·1996·Psychological Review

DOI 10.1037/0033-295x.103.1.5

Open this paper in CoChat — free account

Abstract

Conventional wisdom has regarded low self-esteem as an important cause of violence, but the opposite view is theoretically viable. An interdisciplinary review of evidence about aggression, crime, and violence contradicted the view that low self-esteem is an important cause. Instead, violence appears to be most commonly a result of threatened egotism--that is, highly favorable views of self that are disputed by some person or circumstance. Inflated, unstable, or tentative beliefs in the self's superiority may be most prone to encountering threats and hence to causing violence. The mediating process may involve directing anger outward as a way of avoiding a downward revision of the self-concept.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1037/0033-295x.103.1.5

Cites

181 of 181 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Recomputing p-values needs the paper’s full text.

Claims the paper makes

We couldn’t retrieve this paper’s full text, so its claims and self-check weren’t run. The registry and citation checks still apply.

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

The Principles of Psychology
James, W. (1891) · Personality Culture Society · doi:10.1037/11059-000 · Cited by 25,876
Mind, Self, and Society
Mead, G. H., Joas, H., Huebner, D. R., & Morris, C. W. (2015) · University of Chicago Press eBooks · doi:10.7208/chicago/9780226112879.001.0001 · Cited by 12,419
A General Theory of Crime
Gottfredson, M. R., & Hirschi, T. (1990) · doi:10.1515/9781503621794 · Cited by 10,127
Illusion and well‐being: A social psychological perspective on mental health
Taylor, S. E., & Brown, J. D. (1988) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.103.2.193 · Cited by 7,814
Self-discrepancy: A theory relating self and affect.
Higgins, E. T. (1987) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.94.3.319 · Cited by 7,219
Human Nature and the Social Order
Cooley, C. H. (2017) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203789513 · Cited by 4,847
Frustration and aggression.
Dollard, J., Miller, N. E., Doob, L. W., Mowrer, O. H., & Sears, R. R. (1939) · Yale University Press eBooks · doi:10.1037/10022-000 · Cited by 3,920
The Psychology of Self-Affirmation: Sustaining the Integrity of the Self
Steele, C. M. (1988) · Advances in Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/s0065-2601(08)60229-4 · Cited by 3,697
Development and validation of the State Hope Scale.
Snyder, C. R. R., Sympson, S. C., Ybasco, F. C., Borders, T. F., Babyak, M. A., & Higgins, R. L. (1996) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.70.2.321 · Cited by 3,584
Sex Differences in Social Behavior
Eagly, A. H. (2013) · Psychology Press eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203781906 · Cited by 3,440

Show all 183 references

Sorted by citations

Items 301–400 of 1,003

SELF-ESTEEM AND JOB PERFORMANCE: THE MODERATING ROLE OF SELF-ESTEEM CONTINGENCIES
Ferris, D. L., Lian, H., Brown, D. J., PANG, F. X. J., & Keeping, L. M. (2010) · Personnel Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1744-6570.2010.01181.x · Cited by 134
“However, it should be noted that unrealistically high self-esteem (or self-esteem that is not grounded in actual accomplishments) may render individuals overly sensitive to, or unwilling to pay heed to, negative feedback; such individuals may also display egotistical and narcissistic behavioral patterns (Baumeister et…”
Background
The Self and Memory
Beike, D. R., Lampinen, J. M., & Behrend, D. A. (2004) · Psychology Press eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203337974 · Cited by 136
Understanding the Vital Human Quest for Self-Esteem
Greenberg, J. L. (2008) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1745-6916.2008.00061.x · Cited by 126
Sympathy for the Devil: Evidence That Reminding Whites of Their Mortality Promotes More Favorable Reactions to White Racists
Greenberg, J., Schimel, J., Martens, A., Solomon, S., & Pyszcznyski, T. (2001) · Motivation and Emotion · doi:10.1023/a:1010613909207 · Cited by 133
“On the Supposed Dark Side of High Self-Esteem This analysis runs somewhat counter to the widely cited claim by Baumeister, Smart, and Boden (1996) that people with high self-esteem may be prone to violence, though the claim is qualified by a very broad conceptualization of selfesteem that includes…”
BackgroundResult
The cost of lower self-esteem: Testing a self- and social-bonds model of health.
Stinson, D. A., Logel, C., Zanna, M. P., Holmes, J. G., Cameron, J. J., Wood, J. V., & Spencer, S. J. (2008) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.94.3.412 · Cited by 177
Aggressive reactions to abusive supervision: The role of interactional justice and narcissism
Burton, J. P., & Hoobler, J. M. (2011) · Scandinavian Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9450.2011.00886.x · Cited by 148
Treatment Needs of Women Arrested for Domestic Violence
Henning, K., Jones, A., & Holdford, R. (2003) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/0886260503253876 · Cited by 132
“Some of these traits, such as emotional instability or an inflated sense of self-importance, actually may increase the likelihood of responding aggressively to marital/dating conflicts (Baumeister & Smart, 1996).”
Background
Individual Antecedents of Bullying
Zapf, D., & Einarsen, S. V. (2010) · CRC Press eBooks · doi:10.1201/ebk1439804896-11 · Cited by 130
Implications of Personality Profiles for Batterer Treatment
WHITE, R. J., & Gondolf, E. W. (2000) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/088626000015005002 · Cited by 130
I³ theory: Instigating, impelling, and inhibiting factors in aggression.
Slotter, E. B., & Finkel, E. J. (2010) · American Psychological Association eBooks · doi:10.1037/12346-002 · Cited by 132
Temperament and externalizing behavior: Social preference and perceived acceptance as protective factors.
Berdan, L. E., Keane, S. P., & Calkins, S. D. (2008) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.44.4.957 · Cited by 129
“Likewise, Baumeister, Smart, and Boden (1996) theorized that aggressive children might be less likely to internalize negative feedback from peers—resulting in lowered and more accurate perceived acceptance—because it would threaten their high perceptions, resulting in ignoring potentially helpful…”
Background
Individual, Social, and Behavioral Factors Associated with Co-Occurring Conduct Problems and Callous-Unemotional Traits
Fanti, K. A. (2013) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-013-9726-z · Cited by 141
“when their inflated senses of self are threatened (Baumeister et al. 1996).”
Background
Darwinian models of depression: A review of evolutionary accounts of mood and mood disorders
Allen, N. B., & Badcock, P. B. (2006) · Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.pnpbp.2006.01.007 · Cited by 139
Self-esteem in childhood and adolescence: Vaccine or epiphenomenon?
DuBois, D. L., & Tevendale, H. D. (1999) · Applied and Preventive Psychology · doi:10.1016/s0962-1849(99)80002-x · Cited by 128
How Does Guilt Differ from Shame?
Tangney, J. P. (1998) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-012148610-5/50002-3 · Cited by 128
Not all self‐affirmations were created equal: The cognitive and social benefits of affirming the intrinsic (vs. extrinsic) self
Schimel, J., Arndt, J., Banko, K. M., & Cook, A. (2004) · Social Cognition · doi:10.1521/soco.22.1.75.30984 · Cited by 127
The motivational effects of diminished self-esteem for employees who experience abusive supervision
Vogel, R. M., & Mitchell, M. S. (2017) · Journal of Management · doi:10.1177/0149206314566462 · Cited by 151
“Study 2 replicated the results of Study 1 and provided converging evidence supporting theory on diminished self-esteem (Baumeister et al., 1996; Leary & Downs, 1995).”
BackgroundResultInfluential
Distinguishing Narcissism and Hostility: Similarities and Differences in Interpersonal Circumplex and Five-Factor Correlates
Ruiz, J. M., Smith, T. W., & Rhodewalt, F. T. (2001) · Journal of Personality Assessment · doi:10.1207/s15327752jpa7603_12 · Cited by 125
“Moreover, Baumeister et al. (1996) suggested that inflated and fragile self-esteem, central in most descriptions of narcissism, underlies aggressive responses to threatened egotism.”
Background
Materialism: the good, the bad, and the ugly
Shrum, L. J., Lowrey, T. M., Pandelaere, M., Ruvio, A. A., Gentina, É., Furchheim, P., Herbert, M., Hudders, L., Lens, I., Mandel, N., et al. (2014) · Journal of Marketing Management · doi:10.1080/0267257x.2014.959985 · Cited by 137
The Perceived Impact of Leaders’ Humility on Team Effectiveness: an Empirical Study
Rego, A., Cunha, M. P. E., & Simpson, A. V. (2016) · Journal of Business Ethics · doi:10.1007/s10551-015-3008-3 · Cited by 134
Does self-love or self-hate lead to violence?
Bushman, B. J., & Baumeister, R. F. (2002) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/s0092-6566(02)00502-0 · Cited by 124
“We began this work with the hypothesis that threatened egotism would lead to aggression ( Baumeister et al., 1996 ).”
BackgroundSelf-citation
Narcissism and self-esteem as predictors of dimensions of Facebook use
Błachnio, A., Przepiórka, A., & Rudnicka, P. (2015) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2015.11.018 · Cited by 139
Aggression
Bushman, B. J., & Huesmann, L. R. (2010) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9780470561119.socpsy002023 · Cited by 132
Sibling Constructs: What Are They, Why Do They Matter, and How Should You Handle Them?
Lawson, K. M., & Robins, R. W. (2021) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1177/10888683211047101 · Cited by 144
Global, contingent and implicit self-esteem and psychopathological symptoms in adolescents
Bos, A. E. R., Huijding, J., Muris, P., Vogel, L. R. R., & Biesheuvel, J. (2009) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2009.10.025 · Cited by 120
Developmental Links Between Children’s Working Memory and their Social Relations with Teachers and Peers in the Early School Years
de Wilde, A., Koot, H. M., & van Lier, P. A. C. (2015) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-015-0053-4 · Cited by 139
“Similarly, according to work by Baumeister and colleagues, humans are programmed to form stable, positive interpersonal relationships, which facilitate children’s learning and cognitive development (Baumeister et al. 1996, 2002, 2005).”
BackgroundResult
An Evolutionary‐Psychological Approach to Self‐esteem: Multiple Domains and Multiple Functions
Kirkpatrick, L. A., & Ellis, B. J. (2003) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9780470998557.ch16 · Cited by 119
A systematic review and meta-analysis of CBT interventions based on the Fennell model of low self-esteem
Kolubinski, D. C., Frings, D., Nikčević, A. V., Lawrence, J. A., & Spada, M. M. (2018) · Psychiatry Research · doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2018.06.025 · Cited by 118
“For over two decades, there has been a debate over the value of viewing self-esteem as a single dimension from low to high and whether the pursuit of high self-esteem along that dimension is even desirable (Baumeister et al., 1996; Emler, 2001; Kernis, 2003).”
Background
I Am, Therefore I Buy: Low Self-Esteem and the Pursuit of Self-Verifying Consumption
Stuppy, A., Mead, N. L., & van Osselaer, S. M. J. (2019) · Journal of Consumer Research · doi:10.1093/jcr/ucz029 · Cited by 131
The Role of Shame in Predicting Adult Anger and Depressive Symptoms Among Victims of Child Psychological Maltreatment
Harper, F. W. K., & Arias, I. (2004) · Journal of Family Violence · doi:10.1007/s10896-004-0681-x · Cited by 131
“In effect, getting angry allows the individual to avoid the painful feelings associated with the shame experience and regain a sense of control over negative self-feelings (Baumeister et al., 1996; Tangney et al., 1992a, 1996).”
Background
Psychopathy Factors and Risk for Aggressive Behavior: A Test of the "Threatened Egotism" Hypothesis.
Cale, E. M., & Lilienfeld, S. O. (2006) · Law and Human Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10979-006-9004-5 · Cited by 118
“Baumeister and colleagues noted in passing that “psychopaths seem to fit the view of highly favorable opinions of self as a source of violence” (Baumeister et al., 1996, p. 14; see also Baumeister, 2001; Baumeister & Boden, 1998).”
BackgroundInfluential
Immediate placement or immediate restoration/loading of single implants for molar tooth replacement: a systematic review and meta-analysis.
Atieh, M. A., Payne, A. G. T., Duncan, W. J., Silva, K. D., & Cullinan, M. P. (2010) · PubMed · Cited by 117
Gender, Race, and the Self in Mental Health and Crime
Rosenfield, S., Phillips, J. A., & WHITE, H. R. (2006) · Social Problems · doi:10.1525/sp.2006.53.2.161 · Cited by 117
Effects of customer entitlement on service workers' physical and psychological well-being: A study of waitstaff employees.
Fisk, G. M., & Neville, L. (2011) · Journal of Occupational Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0023802 · Cited by 127
An integrative typology of personality assessment for aggression: Implications for predicting counterproductive workplace behavior.
Bing, M. N., Stewart, S. M., Davison, H. K., Green, P. D., McIntyre, M. D., & James, L. R. (2007) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.92.3.722 · Cited by 122
“Given the propensity of aggressive individuals to believe that their reasoning is rational and objective, and the corresponding tendency for them to engage in a form of reasoning that is conditionally biased in favor of their aggressive behavioral tendencies (Averill, 1993; Baumeister et al., 1996; Nisbett, 1993), it…”
Background
Time-dependent changes in positively biased self-perceptions of children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A developmental psychopathology perspective
Hoza, B., Murray-Close, D., Arnold, L. E., Hinshaw, S. P., Hechtman, L., & The MTA Cooperative Group (2010) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s095457941000012x · Cited by 115
“These findings are consistent with the hypothesis that emotional reactions to negative appraisals may be especially likely to result in aggressive outbursts (Baumeister et al., 1996); children with ADHD may be especially prone to this vulnerability given their impaired emotion regulation capacities.”
Result
Unconditional self-acceptance and responses to negative feedback
Chamberlain, J. M., & Haaga, D. A. F. (2001) · Journal of Rational-Emotive and Cognitive-Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1023/a:1011141500670 · Cited by 116
“However, high self-esteem can also be problematic, leaving people emotionally vulnerable to criticism (Schlenker, Soraci, & McCarthy, 1976) or even prone to violence ( Baumeister, Smart, & Boden, 1996 ).”
Background
Imagining your child’s mind: psychosocial adjustment and mothers’ ability to predict their children’s attributional response styles.
Sharp, C., Fonagy, P., & Goodyer, I. M. (2006) · British Journal of Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1348/026151005x82569 · Cited by 114
Self‐esteem discrepancies and defensive reactions to social feedback
Schröder–Abé, M., Rudolph, A., Wiesner, A., & Schütz, A. (2007) · International Journal of Psychology · doi:10.1080/00207590601068134 · Cited by 114
“Highly positive self‐views, however, are also related to aggressive and defensive behaviour (Baumeister, Smart, & Boden, 1996 ; Blaine & Crocker, 1993 ; Bushman & Baumeister, 1998 ).”
Social rank strategies in hierarchical relationships.
Fournier, M. A., Moskowitz, D. S., & Zuroff, D. C. (2002) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.83.2.425 · Cited by 113
Anger and anger expression in relation to perceptions of social rank, entrapment and depressive symptoms
Allan, S., & Gilbert, P. (2002) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/s0191-8869(01)00057-5 · Cited by 123
The Intrinsic Self and Defensiveness: Evidence that Activating the Intrinsic Self Reduces Self-Handicapping and Conformity
Arndt, J., Schimel, J., Greenberg, J., & Pyszczynski, T. (2002) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167202288011 · Cited by 123
I feel like a scrambled egg in my head: An idiographic case study of meaning making and anger using interpretative phenomenological analysis
Eatough, V., & Smith, J. A. (2006) · Psychology and Psychotherapy Theory Research and Practice · doi:10.1348/147608305x41100 · Cited by 133
Is There a Dark Side of Positive Illusions? Overestimation of Social Competence and Subsequent Adjustment in Aggressive and Nonaggressive Children
Brendgen, M. R., Vitaro, F., Turgeon, L., Poulin, F., & Wanner, B. (2004) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1023/b:jacp.0000026144.08470.cd · Cited by 112
“Again, however, potential curvilinear links between overestimation of social competence and adjustment and potential moderating effects of children's level of aggression—as would be suggested by the Baumeister et al. (1996) model—were not tested.”
BackgroundResultInfluential
The nature of human aggression
Archer, J. E. (2009) · International Journal of Law and Psychiatry · doi:10.1016/j.ijlp.2009.04.001 · Cited by 126
Self-Esteem and Self-Compassion: A Narrative Review and Meta-Analysis on Their Links to Psychological Problems and Well-Being
Muris, P., & Otgaar, H. (2023) · Psychology Research and Behavior Management · doi:10.2147/prbm.s402455 · Cited by 171
When does self-esteem relate to deviant behavior? The role of contingencies of self-worth.
Ferris, D., Brown, D. J., Lian, H.-W., & Keeping, L. M. (2009) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0016115 · Cited by 123
“One frequently cited perspective is that deviant behaviors relate to low levels of selfesteem (Baumeister et al., 1996).”
Influential
“Fight or flight”: coping responses to brand hate
Bayarassou, O., Becheur, I., & Valette‐Florence, P. (2020) · Journal of Product & Brand Management · doi:10.1108/jpbm-08-2019-2519 · Cited by 126
Interactional appraisal models for the anger appraisals of threatened self-esteem, other-blame, and frustration
Kuppens, P., & Mechelen, I. V. (2006) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699930600562193 · Cited by 109
“The experience of threatened self-esteem can further be expected to differ across contexts: In particular, in a recent study, it was found that unpleasant situations that involve negative evaluative information may especially elicit threats to self-esteem (Kuppens, Van Mechelen, Smits, De Boeck, & Ceulemans, 2006); th…”
BackgroundResult
Passive responses to interpersonal conflict at work amplify employee strain
Dijkstra, M. T. M., Dreu, C. K. W. D., Evers, A., & van Dierendonck, D. (2009) · European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1080/13594320802510880 · Cited by 109
“To most people interpersonal conflict is threatening and elicits negative emotions (Baumeister, Smart, & Boden, 1996 ; De Dreu & van Knippenberg, 2005 ).”
Background
Tracking the hypersensitive dimension in narcissism: reliability and validity of the hypersensitive narcissism scale.
Fossati, A., Borroni, S., Grazioli, F., Dornetti, L., Marcassoli, I., Maffei, C., & Cheek, J. (2009) · Personality and Mental Health · doi:10.1002/pmh.92 · Cited by 108
Changing self-esteem in children and adolescents: a roadmap for future interventions
Bos, A. E. R., Muris, P., Mulkens, S., & Schaalma, H. P. (2006) · Netherlands journal of psychology · doi:10.1007/bf03061048 · Cited by 108
Missing the revolution : Darwinism for social scientists
Barkow, J. H. (2006) · Cited by 108
Gender and Social‐Cognitive Development
Leaper, C. (2015) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9781118963418.childpsy219 · Cited by 114
Feeling Better But Doing Worse: Effects of Facebook Self-Presentation on Implicit Self-Esteem and Cognitive Task Performance
Toma, C. L. (2013) · Media Psychology · doi:10.1080/15213269.2012.762189 · Cited by 114
The Interactive Effect of Authentic Leadership and Leader Competency on Followers’ Job Performance: The Mediating Role of Work Engagement
Wei, F., Li, Y., Zhang, Y., & Liu, S. (2016) · Journal of Business Ethics · doi:10.1007/s10551-016-3379-0 · Cited by 130
Mindfulness Meditation as an On-The-Spot Workplace Intervention
Hafenbrack, A. (2017) · Journal of Business Research · doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2017.01.017 · Cited by 125
Experiences With Sexual Coercion in College Males and Females
Forbes, G. B., & Adams‐Curtis, L. E. (2001) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/088626001016009002 · Cited by 107
Differential correlates of reactive and proactive aggression in Asian adolescents: relations to narcissism, anxiety, schizotypal traits, and peer relations
Seah, S. L., & Ang, R. P.-H. (2008) · Aggressive Behavior · doi:10.1002/ab.20269 · Cited by 110
Towards a Clearer Understanding of Social Identity Theory’s Self-Esteem Hypothesis
Martiny, S. E., & Rubin, M. (2016) · Peace psychology book series · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-29869-6_2 · Cited by 117
“One reason why people with high self-esteem react so strongly to threats against their positive self-appraisal is because they are extremely reluctant to revise their self-appraisals in a downward direction (Baumeister et al., 1996).”
BackgroundResult
Destination brand personality and destination brand attachment – the involvement of self-congruence
Huang, Z., Zhang, C., & Hu, J. (2017) · Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing · doi:10.1080/10548408.2017.1330171 · Cited by 106
Feeling Misidentified: The Consequences of Internal Identity Asymmetries for Individuals at Work
Meister, A., Jehn, K. A., & Thatcher, S. M. B. (2014) · Academy of Management Review · doi:10.5465/amr.2013.0102 · Cited by 116
“defensiveness, anger, or antisocial behavior towards others (e.g., Aquino & Douglas, 2003; Baumeister et al., 1996).”
Background
Aggression and the Self
Baumeister, R. F., & Boden, J. M. (1998) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-012278805-5/50006-7 · Cited by 105
Self-citation
“What, Me Ashamed?” Shame Management and School Bullying
Ahmed, E., & Braithwaite, V. A. (2004) · Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency · doi:10.1177/0022427804266547 · Cited by 113
Spiraling Down into Corruption: A Dynamic Analysis of the Social Identity Processes that Cause Corruption in Organizations to Grow
den Nieuwenboer, N. A., & Kaptein, M. (2007) · Journal of Business Ethics · doi:10.1007/s10551-007-9617-8 · Cited by 105
Social and Academic Profiles of Externalizing and Internalizing Groups: Risk Factors for Emotional and Behavioral Disorders
Gresham, F. M., Lane, K. L., MacMillan, D. L., & Bocian, K. M. (1999) · Behavioral Disorders · doi:10.1177/019874299902400303 · Cited by 110
Dominating Interpersonal Behavior and Perceived Victimization in Groups: Evidence for a Curvilinear Relationship
Aquino, K. F., & Byron, K. L. (2002) · Journal of Management · doi:10.1177/014920630202800105 · Cited by 104
Social Information Processing as a Mediator Between Cognitive Schemas and Aggressive Behavior in Adolescents
Calvete, E., & Orue, I. (2011) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-011-9546-y · Cited by 115
“The link between narcissism and aggression was proposed by Baumeister et al. (1996), who suggested that when people with a very high self-opinion are questioned or threatened by others, aggression emerges.”
Background
Entitled vengeance: A meta‐analysis relating narcissism to provoked aggression
Rasmussen, K. R. (2015) · Aggressive Behavior · doi:10.1002/ab.21632 · Cited by 104
Dominance and prestige as differential predictors of aggression and testosterone levels in men
Johnson, R. T., Burk, J. A., & Kirkpatrick, L. A. (2007) · Evolution and Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2007.04.003 · Cited by 118
Narcissists’ social pain seen only in the brain
Cascio, C. N., Konrath, S. H., & Falk, E. B. (2015) · Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience · doi:10.1093/scan/nsu072 · Cited by 104
“, 2002) and they also tend to be hostile and aggressive (Baumeister et al., 1996; Bushman and Baumeister, 1998; Baumeister et al., 2000; Twenge and Campbell, 2003).”
Rapists' Offense Processes
Polaschek, D. L. L., Hudson, S. M., Ward, T., & Siegert, R. J. (2001) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/088626001016006003 · Cited by 103
The role of grandiose and vulnerable narcissism in self-reported and laboratory aggression and testosterone reactivity.
Lobbestael, J., Baumeister, R. F., Fiebig, T., & Eckel, L. A. (2014) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2014.05.007 · Cited by 102
Self-citation
Gray matter abnormalities in patients with narcissistic personality disorder
Schulze, L., Dziobek, I., Vater, A., Heekeren, H. R., Bajbouj, M., Renneberg, B., Heuser, I., & Roepke, S. (2013) · Journal of Psychiatric Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2013.05.017 · Cited by 102
“, 2008; Ronningstam, 2010), which are especially evident under conditions of threatened self-esteem (Baumeister et al., 1996).”
Background
Everyday Conceptions of Modesty: A Prototype Analysis
Gregg, A. P., Hart, C. M., Sedikides, C., & Kumashiro, M. (2008) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167208316734 · Cited by 147
Dynamics of Identity: Between Self-Enhancement and Self-Assessment
Gregg, A. P., Sedikides, C., & Gebauer, J. E. (2011) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-7988-9_14 · Cited by 103
Self‐esteem, academic self‐concept, and aggression at school
Taylor, L. D., Davis-Kean, P. E., & Malanchuk, O. (2007) · Aggressive Behavior · doi:10.1002/ab.20174 · Cited by 102
“These emotions increase the likelihood of aggressing against that source [Baumeister et al., 1996].”
Background
The Dark Side of Strong Identification in Organizations: A Conceptual Review
Caprar, D. V., Walker, B. W., & Ashforth, B. E. (2022) · Academy of Management Annals · doi:10.5465/annals.2020.0338 · Cited by 113
Frustration–aggression hypothesis reconsidered: The role of significance quest
Kruglanski, A. W., Ellenberg, M. D., Szumowska, E., Molinario, E., Speckhard, A., Leander, N. P., Pierro, A., Cicco, G. D., & Bushman, B. J. (2023) · Aggressive Behavior · doi:10.1002/ab.22092 · Cited by 135
Sexual Narcissism and the Perpetration of Sexual Aggression
Widman, L. M., & McNulty, J. K. (2009) · Archives of Sexual Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10508-008-9461-7 · Cited by 103
“First, narcissists respond more aggressively than non-narcissists to interpersonal rejections across a variety of domains (e.g., Baumeister, Bushman, & Campbell, 2000; Baumeister, Smart, & Boden, 1996; Bushman & Baumeister, 1998; Bushman, Bonacci, van Dijk, & Baumeister, 2003; Konrath, Bushman, & Campbell, 2006; Rhode…”
Background
Psychosocial predictors of supervisor-, peer-, subordinate-, and service-provider-targeted aggression.
Inness, M., LeBlanc, M. M., & Barling, J. I. (2008) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0012810 · Cited by 100
State humility: Measurement, conceptual validation, and intrapersonal processes
Kruse, E. T., Chancellor, J., & Lyubomirsky, S. (2017) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/15298868.2016.1267662 · Cited by 101
“The importance of the self in psychological theory cannot be overstated; however, discussions about self-oriented processes typically focus on their e ff ects, both adaptive (e.g. Judge, Erez, & Bono, 1998) and maladaptive (e.g. Baumeister, Smart, & Boden, 1996).”
Humility breeds authenticity: How authentic leader humility shapes follower vulnerability and felt authenticity
Oc, B., Daniels, M., Diefendorff, J. M., Bashshur, M. R., & Greguras, G. J. (2019) · Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes · doi:10.1016/j.obhdp.2019.04.008 · Cited by 116
Seeing My World in a Million Little Pieces: Narcissism, Self‐Construal, and Cognitive–Perceptual Style
Konrath, S., Bushman, B. J., & Grove, T. B. (2009) · Journal of Personality · doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2009.00579.x · Cited by 100
Culture, Masculine Honor, and Violence Toward Women
Brown, R. P., Baughman, K. R., & Carvallo, M. (2017) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167217744195 · Cited by 99
Justification of Violence and Grandiosity Schemas as Predictors of Antisocial Behavior in Adolescents
Calvete, E. (2008) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-008-9229-5 · Cited by 99
Development of the Contentment with Life Assessment Scale (CLAS): Using Daily Life Experiences to Verify Levels of Self-Reported Life Satisfaction
Lavallee, L. F., Hatch, P. M., Michalos, A. C., & McKinley, T. (2006) · Social Indicators Research · doi:10.1007/s11205-006-9054-6 · Cited by 104
“For example, self-report self-esteem predicts aggression (Baumeister et al., 1996), narcissism (Emmons, 1987; Sedikides et al.”
Background
Collective Narcissism and Intergroup Hostility: The Dark Side of ‘In‐Group Love’
de Zavala, A. G. (2011) · Social and Personality Psychology Compass · doi:10.1111/j.1751-9004.2011.00351.x · Cited by 106
The moderating effect of trivial triggering provocation on displaced aggression.
Pedersen, W. C., Gonzales, C., & Miller, N. (2000) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.78.5.913 · Cited by 98
In fairness to future generations: The role of egocentrism, uncertainty, power, and stewardship in judgments of intergenerational allocations
Wade‐Benzoni, K. A., Hernandez, M., Medvec, V. H., & Messick, D. M. (2007) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2007.04.004 · Cited by 94
Need for Approval and Children's Well-Being
Rudolph, K. D., Caldwell, M. S., & Conley, C. S. (2005) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2005.00847_a.x · Cited by 102
Why do English players fail in soccer penalty shootouts? A study of team status, self-regulation, and choking under pressure
Jordet, G. (2008) · Journal of Sports Sciences · doi:10.1080/02640410802509144 · Cited by 97
“defensive self-esteem; Lampird & Mann, 2006 ), respond less adaptively than people with lower self-esteem (Baumeister, Heatherton, & Tice, 1993 ; Baumeister, Smart, & Boden, 1996 ).”
How and when intragroup relationship conflict leads to knowledge hiding: the roles of envy and trait competitiveness
He, P., Bell, C. M., & Li, Y. (2020) · International Journal of Conflict Management · doi:10.1108/ijcma-03-2020-0041 · Cited by 105
Institutions, Anomie, and Violent Crime: Clarifying and Elaborating Institutional-Anomie Theory
Messner, S. F., Thome, H., & Rosenfeld, R. (2017) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315262413-27 · Cited by 99
Are Narcissists More Likely to Be Involved in Cyberbullying? Examining the Mediating Role of Self-Esteem
Fan, C., Chu, X., Zhang, M., & Zhou, Z. (2016) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/0886260516666531 · Cited by 108
Suppressed Attention to Rejection, Ridicule, and Failure Cues: A Unique Correlate of Reactive but Not Proactive Aggression in Youth
Schippell, P. L., Vasey, M. W., Cravens-Brown, L. M., & Bretveld, R. A. (2003) · Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology · doi:10.1207/s15374424jccp3201_05 · Cited by 101
“The theory of aggression and threatened egotism proposed by Baumeister, Smart, and Boden (1996) also emphasizes the role of inflated perceptions of competence in aggressive behavior problems (see also Edens, 1999).”
Background
MCMI-III Results for Batterer Program Participants in Four Cities: Less “Pathological” Than Expected
Gondolf, E. W. (1999) · Journal of Family Violence · doi:10.1023/a:1022843324943 · Cited by 94
“The high prevalence of narcissistic and antisocial tendencies among batterers appears to reinforce the conclusions of recent literature about violent perpetrators in general (Baumeister et al., 1996).”
Background
Characteristics of Court-Mandated Batterers in Four Cities: Diversity and Dichotomies
GONDOLF, E. W. (1999) · Violence Against Women · doi:10.1177/10778019922183372 · Cited by 93
Collective Violence: Comparisons between Youths and Chimpanzees
Wrangham, R. W., & Wilson, M. L. (2004) · Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1196/annals.1330.015 · Cited by 93
Stressful Life Events, Depression, and Non-Suicidal Self-Injury Among Chinese Left-Behind Children: Moderating Effects of Self-Esteem
Lan, T., Jia, X., Lin, D., & Liu, X. (2019) · Frontiers in Psychiatry · doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00244 · Cited by 93
“Children’s self-cognition plays an important moderate role; for example, self-esteem is thought to have a significant effect in promoting children’s positive adaptation (44, 45).”
Background

Authors: Baumeister, R. F., Smart, L., & Boden, J. M.
Affiliations: Case Western Reserve University (US)
ORCID: Baumeister, Roy F.
Boden, Joseph M.
Venue: Psychological Review
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 1996
Volume: 103
Issue: 1
Pages: 5-33
ISSN: 0033-295X (ISSN-L)
1939-1471
DOI: 10.1037/0033-295x.103.1.5
OpenAlex: W2100354065
Cited by: 2,378
References: 183
Citations by year: 2026: 35 · 2025: 57 · 2024: 65 · 2023: 97 · 2022: 96 · 2021: 97 · 2020: 75 · 2019: 86 · 2018: 90 · 2017: 111 · 2016: 113 · 2015: 125 · 2014: 122 · 2013: 139 · 2012: 130
FWCI: 55.15
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Psychological Review (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders: National Institutes of Health (5r01mh043826-02, 5r01mh051482-03)
National Institute of Mental Health (MH 43826, MH-51482)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Bullying, Victimization, and Aggression
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Death Anxiety and Social Exclusion
Keywords: self-esteem, aggression, violence, crime, self-concept, anger
MeSH terms: Aggression, Anger, Crime, Defense Mechanisms, Dominance-Subordination, Humans, Internal-External Control, Power, Psychological, Self Concept, Violence

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review

Relation of threatened egotism to violence and aggression: The dark side of high self-esteem.

Abstract

Overview

Integrity signals

Verification

Claims the paper makes

Claims other papers make about this one

Citations

Cites

Cited by

Related

Metadata

Record

About these checks