Cited by 2,378Bullying, Victimization, and AggressionPersonality Traits and PsychologyDeath Anxiety and Social Exclusion

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Relation of threatened egotism to violence and aggression: The dark side of high self-esteem.

Baumeister, Roy F., Smart, Laura, Boden, Joseph M.·1996·Psychological Review

DOI 10.1037/0033-295x.103.1.5

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Abstract

Conventional wisdom has regarded low self-esteem as an important cause of violence, but the opposite view is theoretically viable. An interdisciplinary review of evidence about aggression, crime, and violence contradicted the view that low self-esteem is an important cause. Instead, violence appears to be most commonly a result of threatened egotism--that is, highly favorable views of self that are disputed by some person or circumstance. Inflated, unstable, or tentative beliefs in the self's superiority may be most prone to encountering threats and hence to causing violence. The mediating process may involve directing anger outward as a way of avoiding a downward revision of the self-concept.

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Murray-Close, D. K., Hoza, B., Hinshaw, S. P., Arnold, L. E., Swanson, J. M., Jensen, P. S., Hechtman, L. T., & Wells, K. (2010) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579410000465 · Cited by 165
“Researchers have proposed that inflated self-perceptions may serve a selfprotective function for some individuals (e.g., Baumeister et al., 1996).”
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Individual Differences in Posttraumatic Distress: Problems with the DSM-IV Model
Bowman, M. L. (1999) · The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/070674379904400103 · Cited by 149
An Examination of Dysfunctional Sport Fans: Method of Classification and Relationships with Problem Behaviors
Wakefield, K. L., & Wann, D. L. L. (2006) · Journal of Leisure Research · doi:10.1080/00222216.2006.11950074 · Cited by 150
A meta-analytical evaluation of the dual-hormone hypothesis: Does cortisol moderate the relationship between testosterone and status, dominance, risk taking, aggression, and psychopathy?
Dekkers, T. J., van Rentergem, J. A. A., Meijer, B., Popma, A., Wagemaker, E., & Huizenga, H. M. (2018) · Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews · doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2018.12.004 · Cited by 152
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Mnemic neglect: Selective amnesia of one’s faults
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A Retrospective Evaluation of the Regional Treatment Centre Sex Offender Treatment Program
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The relationship between self-esteem level, self-esteem stability, and cardiovascular reactions to performance feedback
Seery, M. D., Blascovich, J., Weisbuch, M., & Vick, S. B. (2004) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.87.1.133 · Cited by 144
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“Furthermore, research has shown that narcissists are prone to be impulsive (Vazire & Funder, 2006 ), and aggressive (eg, Locke, 2009 ; see also Baumeister, Smart, & Boden, 1996 ).”
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Dreu, C. K. W. D. (2010) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9780470561119.socpsy002027 · Cited by 144
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“Finally, psychoanalytic theories suggest that when denial, minimization, and blaming defenses are unsuccessful in preventing overwhelming feelings of shame, rejection, and powerlessness, abusive behavior serves a third function—escape from the negative sense of self through the feelings of powerfulness gained with abu…”
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The moderating roles of self-esteem and neuroticism in the relationship between group and individual undermining behavior.
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Defensive pride and consensus: strength in imaginary numbers.
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The Mismeasure of the Self
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Authors: Baumeister, R. F., Smart, L., & Boden, J. M.
Affiliations: Case Western Reserve University (US)
ORCID: Baumeister, Roy F.
Boden, Joseph M.
Venue: Psychological Review
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 1996
Volume: 103
Issue: 1
Pages: 5-33
ISSN: 0033-295X (ISSN-L)
1939-1471
DOI: 10.1037/0033-295x.103.1.5
OpenAlex: W2100354065
Cited by: 2,378
References: 183
Citations by year: 2026: 35 · 2025: 57 · 2024: 65 · 2023: 97 · 2022: 96 · 2021: 97 · 2020: 75 · 2019: 86 · 2018: 90 · 2017: 111 · 2016: 113 · 2015: 125 · 2014: 122 · 2013: 139 · 2012: 130
FWCI: 55.15
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Psychological Review (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders: National Institutes of Health (5r01mh043826-02, 5r01mh051482-03)
National Institute of Mental Health (MH 43826, MH-51482)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Bullying, Victimization, and Aggression
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Death Anxiety and Social Exclusion
Keywords: self-esteem, aggression, violence, crime, self-concept, anger
MeSH terms: Aggression, Anger, Crime, Defense Mechanisms, Dominance-Subordination, Humans, Internal-External Control, Power, Psychological, Self Concept, Violence

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Relation of threatened egotism to violence and aggression: The dark side of high self-esteem.

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