Cited by 2,378Bullying, Victimization, and AggressionPersonality Traits and PsychologyDeath Anxiety and Social Exclusion

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Relation of threatened egotism to violence and aggression: The dark side of high self-esteem.

Baumeister, Roy F., Smart, Laura, Boden, Joseph M.·1996·Psychological Review

DOI 10.1037/0033-295x.103.1.5

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Abstract

Conventional wisdom has regarded low self-esteem as an important cause of violence, but the opposite view is theoretically viable. An interdisciplinary review of evidence about aggression, crime, and violence contradicted the view that low self-esteem is an important cause. Instead, violence appears to be most commonly a result of threatened egotism--that is, highly favorable views of self that are disputed by some person or circumstance. Inflated, unstable, or tentative beliefs in the self's superiority may be most prone to encountering threats and hence to causing violence. The mediating process may involve directing anger outward as a way of avoiding a downward revision of the self-concept.

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Bendersky, C., & Hays, N. A. (2011) · Organization Science · doi:10.1287/orsc.1110.0734 · Cited by 434
“appraisal that is much less favorable ( Baumeister, Smart & Boden 1996; Vohs & Heatherton 2003), is”
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“In their review of the literature on self-esteem and aggression, Baumeister, Smart, and Boden (1996) conclude that unrealistically high, vulnerable self-esteem (i.e., narcissism) is a contributing factor to aggression in many domains, including self-reported hostility, murder and assault, rape,…”
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“However, the literature does suggest that perpetrators may bully due to a need to protect their self-esteem (Baumeister et al. 1996) and/or because of a lack of social competencies, such as emotional control and perspective taking (Zapf and Einarsen 2011).”
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“…debated whether, and in what way, self-esteem is related to aggression, violence, delinquency, and criminal behavior, with some arguing that high self-esteem promotes antisocial behavior (e.g., Baumeister et al., 1996), and others arguing that low self-esteem does (e.g., Donnellan et al., 2005).”
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“Furthermore, one could argue that the decrease in brand relevance can be attributed to respondents simply becoming more tired (or ego depleted; see Baumeister, Smart, and Boden 1996).”
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“However, the work of Newman and others provide more compelling evidence for Karpman’s distinction by indicating that ‘‘high anxious’’ and ‘‘low anxious’’ psychopaths may differ on putative etiological markers.”
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“Based on a broad review of empirical research from several psychological fields, Baumeister, Smart, and Boden (1996) gathered evidence suggesting that it seems to be a very positive self-image that leads to aggression after ego-threat.”
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Discrepancies between implicit and explicit self-esteem: Implications for narcissism and self-esteem instability
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“to prejudice (Crocker, Thompson, McGraw, & Ingerman, 1987; Verkuyten, 1996; Verkuyten & Masson, 1995), aggression ( Baumeister, Smart, & Boden, 1996; Papps & O’Carroll, 1998), and a variety of self-protective or self-enhancement strategies (Baumeister, Heatherton, & Tice, 1993; Baumeister, Tice, & Hutton, 1989; Blaine…”

Authors: Baumeister, R. F., Smart, L., & Boden, J. M.
Affiliations: Case Western Reserve University (US)
ORCID: Baumeister, Roy F.
Boden, Joseph M.
Venue: Psychological Review
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 1996
Volume: 103
Issue: 1
Pages: 5-33
ISSN: 0033-295X (ISSN-L)
1939-1471
DOI: 10.1037/0033-295x.103.1.5
OpenAlex: W2100354065
Cited by: 2,378
References: 183
Citations by year: 2026: 35 · 2025: 57 · 2024: 65 · 2023: 97 · 2022: 96 · 2021: 97 · 2020: 75 · 2019: 86 · 2018: 90 · 2017: 111 · 2016: 113 · 2015: 125 · 2014: 122 · 2013: 139 · 2012: 130
FWCI: 55.15
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Psychological Review (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders: National Institutes of Health (5r01mh043826-02, 5r01mh051482-03)
National Institute of Mental Health (MH 43826, MH-51482)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Bullying, Victimization, and Aggression
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Death Anxiety and Social Exclusion
Keywords: self-esteem, aggression, violence, crime, self-concept, anger
MeSH terms: Aggression, Anger, Crime, Defense Mechanisms, Dominance-Subordination, Humans, Internal-External Control, Power, Psychological, Self Concept, Violence

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Relation of threatened egotism to violence and aggression: The dark side of high self-esteem.

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