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Relation of threatened egotism to violence and aggression: The dark side of high self-esteem.
Abstract
Conventional wisdom has regarded low self-esteem as an important cause of violence, but the opposite view is theoretically viable. An interdisciplinary review of evidence about aggression, crime, and violence contradicted the view that low self-esteem is an important cause. Instead, violence appears to be most commonly a result of threatened egotism--that is, highly favorable views of self that are disputed by some person or circumstance. Inflated, unstable, or tentative beliefs in the self's superiority may be most prone to encountering threats and hence to causing violence. The mediating process may involve directing anger outward as a way of avoiding a downward revision of the self-concept.
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“A large body of evidence suggests that individuals who do not meet the status expectations they feel entitled to are more likely to engage in aggressive behavior (Baumeister, Smart, & Boden, 1996; Denissen et al., 2018; Krizan & Johar, 2015; Rasmussen, 2016).”
From The "Why" and "How" of Narcissism: A Process Model of Narcissistic Status Pursuit (2020) · cites this paper as Baumeister, Smart, & Boden, 1996
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“Baumeister, Smart, and Boden (1996) defined a threat to the self as a situation ‘‘when favorable views about oneself are questioned, contradicted, impugned, mocked, challenged, or otherwise put in jeopardy’’ (p. 8) (see also Campbell & Sedikides, 1999).”
BackgroundProtective factors and resilience
Lösel, F., & Bender, D. (2003) · Early Prevention of Adult Antisocial Behaviour · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511489259.006 · Cited by 219
Untangling Developmental Relations Between Depressed Mood and Delinquency in Male Adolescents
Beyers, J. M., & Loeber, R. (2003) · Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology · doi:10.1023/a:1023225428957 · Cited by 237
“Baumeister, Smart, and Boden (1996) have presented evidence that violence is related to inflated self-esteem rather than low self-esteem; however, their review did not include research on nonviolent delinquency and they acknowledge that inflated self-esteem cannot be responsible for all violent transgressions.”
BackgroundEffects of narcissistic entitlement and exploitativeness on human physical aggression
Reidy, D. E., Zeichner, A., Foster, J. D., & Martinez, M. A. (2007) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2007.10.015 · Cited by 215
Jealousy and the threatened self: Getting to the heart of the green-eyed monster
DeSteno, D., Valdesolo, P., & Bartlett, M. Y. (2006) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.91.4.626 · Cited by 213
“Specific individuals, for example, might be both more susceptible to jealousy and more aggressive without one factor mediating the other; threats to self-esteem might influence each factor directly (cf. Baumeister et al., 1996; Twenge, Baumeister, Tice, & Stucke, 2001).”
BackgroundResultSalmivalli, C. (2001) · Aggression and Violent Behavior · doi:10.1016/s1359-1789(00)00012-4 · Cited by 213
The Intrinsic Appeal of Evil: Sadism, Sensational Thrills, and Threatened Egotism
Baumeister, R. F., & Campbell, W. K. (1999) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1207/s15327957pspr0303_4 · Cited by 212
“An early view held that abusive men had low self-esteem (Walker, 1979), but subsequent controlled studies have failed to confirm that theory (see Baumeister et al., 1996, for a review).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialSelf-citationRethinking intractable conflict: The perspective of dynamical systems.
Vallacher, R. R., Coleman, P. T., Nowak, A. K., & Bui‐Wrzosinska, L. (2010) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/a0019290 · Cited by 212
Individual differences in patterns of appraisal and anger experience
Kuppens, P., Mechelen, I. V., Smits, D., de Boeck, P. A. L., & Ceulemans, E. (2007) · Cognition & Emotion · doi:10.1080/02699930600859219 · Cited by 216
“Our findings, however, do not seem to corroborate the view that relates a threatened high, and unstable, self-esteem to anger and violence (e.g., Baumeister et al., 1996).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialSkala samooceny SES Morrisa Rosenberga – polska adaptacja metody
Dzwonkowska, I., Lachowicz‐Tabaczek, K., & Łaguna, M. (2007) · Social Psychological Bulletin · Cited by 206
The Egoism and Altruism of Intergenerational Behavior
Wade‐Benzoni, K. A., & Tost, L. P. (2009) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1177/1088868309339317 · Cited by 211
Metadata
- Authors
- Baumeister, R. F., Smart, L., & Boden, J. M.
- Affiliations
- Case Western Reserve University (US)
- Venue
- Psychological Review
- Published
- 1996
- Volume
- 103
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 5-33
- ISSN
- 0033-295X (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1471
- OpenAlex
- W2100354065
- Cited by
- 2,378
- References
- 183
- Citations by year
- 2026: 35 · 2025: 57 · 2024: 65 · 2023: 97 · 2022: 96 · 2021: 97 · 2020: 75 · 2019: 86 · 2018: 90 · 2017: 111 · 2016: 113 · 2015: 125 · 2014: 122 · 2013: 139 · 2012: 130
- FWCI
- 55.15
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Review (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institutes of Health (5r01mh043826-02, 5r01mh051482-03)
- National Institute of Mental Health (MH 43826, MH-51482)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Bullying, Victimization, and Aggression
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Death Anxiety and Social Exclusion
- Keywords
- self-esteem, aggression, violence, crime, self-concept, anger
- MeSH terms
- Aggression, Anger, Crime, Defense Mechanisms, Dominance-Subordination, Humans, Internal-External Control, Power, Psychological, Self Concept, Violence
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