Cited by 2,378Bullying, Victimization, and AggressionPersonality Traits and PsychologyDeath Anxiety and Social Exclusion

The DOI matches its Crossref record; 181 of the 183 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.

Relation of threatened egotism to violence and aggression: The dark side of high self-esteem.

Baumeister, Roy F., Smart, Laura, Boden, Joseph M.·1996·Psychological Review

DOI 10.1037/0033-295x.103.1.5

Open this paper in CoChat — free account

Abstract

Conventional wisdom has regarded low self-esteem as an important cause of violence, but the opposite view is theoretically viable. An interdisciplinary review of evidence about aggression, crime, and violence contradicted the view that low self-esteem is an important cause. Instead, violence appears to be most commonly a result of threatened egotism--that is, highly favorable views of self that are disputed by some person or circumstance. Inflated, unstable, or tentative beliefs in the self's superiority may be most prone to encountering threats and hence to causing violence. The mediating process may involve directing anger outward as a way of avoiding a downward revision of the self-concept.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1037/0033-295x.103.1.5

Cites

181 of 181 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Recomputing p-values needs the paper’s full text.

Claims the paper makes

We couldn’t retrieve this paper’s full text, so its claims and self-check weren’t run. The registry and citation checks still apply.

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

The Principles of Psychology
James, W. (1891) · Personality Culture Society · doi:10.1037/11059-000 · Cited by 25,876
Mind, Self, and Society
Mead, G. H., Joas, H., Huebner, D. R., & Morris, C. W. (2015) · University of Chicago Press eBooks · doi:10.7208/chicago/9780226112879.001.0001 · Cited by 12,419
A General Theory of Crime
Gottfredson, M. R., & Hirschi, T. (1990) · doi:10.1515/9781503621794 · Cited by 10,127
Illusion and well‐being: A social psychological perspective on mental health
Taylor, S. E., & Brown, J. D. (1988) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.103.2.193 · Cited by 7,814
Self-discrepancy: A theory relating self and affect.
Higgins, E. T. (1987) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.94.3.319 · Cited by 7,219
Human Nature and the Social Order
Cooley, C. H. (2017) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203789513 · Cited by 4,847
Frustration and aggression.
Dollard, J., Miller, N. E., Doob, L. W., Mowrer, O. H., & Sears, R. R. (1939) · Yale University Press eBooks · doi:10.1037/10022-000 · Cited by 3,920
The Psychology of Self-Affirmation: Sustaining the Integrity of the Self
Steele, C. M. (1988) · Advances in Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/s0065-2601(08)60229-4 · Cited by 3,697
Development and validation of the State Hope Scale.
Snyder, C. R. R., Sympson, S. C., Ybasco, F. C., Borders, T. F., Babyak, M. A., & Higgins, R. L. (1996) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.70.2.321 · Cited by 3,584
Sex Differences in Social Behavior
Eagly, A. H. (2013) · Psychology Press eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203781906 · Cited by 3,440

Show all 183 references

Sorted by citations

Items 701–800 of 1,003

Enhancing self-compassion using a gestalt two-chair intervention
Kirkpatrick, K. L. (2005) · Texas ScholarWorks (Texas Digital Library) · Cited by 39
Stigma and Mental Illness: Developmental Issues and Future Prospects
Hinshaw, S. P. (2015) · Wiley eBooks · doi:10.1002/9780470939406.ch22 · Cited by 40
A question of false self‐esteem
Gardner, D. G., & Pierce, J. L. (2011) · Journal of Managerial Psychology · doi:10.1108/02683941111181770 · Cited by 39
Taming the wild ego: The challenge of humility.
Exline, J. J. (2008) · American Psychological Association eBooks · doi:10.1037/11771-005 · Cited by 41
Prevention-focused self-regulation and aggressiveness
Keller, J., Hurst, M., & Üskül, A. K. (2007) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2007.10.005 · Cited by 39
Self and Self-Concept
Owens, T. J., & Samblanet, S. (2013) · Handbooks of sociology and social research · doi:10.1007/978-94-007-6772-0_8 · Cited by 39
Instigators of GenocideExamining Hitler From a Social-Psychological Perspective
Mandel, D. R. (2002) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195133622.003.0012 · Cited by 38
The relationship between self‐criticism and suicide probability
O’Neill, C., Pratt, D., Kilshaw, M. A., Ward, K., KELLY, J. A., & Haddock, G. (2021) · Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy · doi:10.1002/cpp.2593 · Cited by 51
Teacher-child conflict and aggressive behaviour in first grade: the intervening role of children's self-esteem
Doumen, S., Buyse, E., Colpin, H., & Verschueren, K. (2011) · Infant and Child Development · doi:10.1002/icd.725 · Cited by 38
The relationship between injustice and crime: A general strain theory approach
Scheuerman, H. L. (2013) · Journal of Criminal Justice · doi:10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2013.06.019 · Cited by 38
Examining retaliatory responses to justice violations and recovery attempts in teams.
Christian, J. S., Christian, M. S., Garza, A. S., & Ellis, A. P. J. (2012) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0029450 · Cited by 40
Mass Murder
Knoll, J. L. (2012) · Psychiatric Clinics of North America · doi:10.1016/j.psc.2012.08.001 · Cited by 44
Self-Regulation as a Key to Success in Life
Baumeister, R. F., Leith, K. P., Muraven, M., & Bratslavsky, E. (2006) · Kluwer Academic Publishers eBooks · doi:10.1007/0-306-47149-3_9 · Cited by 37
Self-citation
The influence of low self-control on violent and nonviolent delinquencies: a study of male adolescents from two Chinese societies
Chan, H. C., & Chui, W. H. (2015) · Journal of Forensic Psychiatry and Psychology · doi:10.1080/14789949.2015.1012534 · Cited by 38
“Baumeister, Smart, and Boden (1996) even argued that ‘threatened egotism’ is a major source of violent behavior.”
Background
An Experimental Test of the Role of Alcohol in Relationship Conflict
MacDonald, G., Zanna, M. P., & Holmes, J. G. (2000) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1006/jesp.1999.1412 · Cited by 38
The Stabilization of Self-Esteem among Incarcerated Adolescents: Accommodative and Immunizing Processes
Greve, W., Enzmann, D., & Hosser, D. (2001) · International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology · doi:10.1177/0306624x01456008 · Cited by 38
“Baumeister, Smart, and Boden (1996) convincingly argued that the proper interpretation ought to address not the actual degree of self-esteem but the degree of threat to that selfesteem.”
Background
Shall I leave or shall we fight? Effects of threatened group-based self-esteem on identity management strategies
Martiny, S., Kessler, T., & Vignoles, V. (2012) · Group Processes & Intergroup Relations · doi:10.1177/1368430211415439 · Cited by 22
“These results are in line with social identity theory (Tajfel & Turner, 1979) and provide evidence that processes taking place on the individual level as described in the literature on threatened egotism (e.g., Baumeister et al., 1996) also take place on the group level.”
BackgroundResultInfluential
High Self-Esteem: Multiple Forms and Their Outcomes
Heppner, W. L., & Kernis, M. H. (2011) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-7988-9_15 · Cited by 41
Fragile Self-esteem and the Interpersonal Circumplex: Are Feelings of Self-worth Associated with Interpersonal Style?
Zeigler‐Hill, V., Clark, C. B., & Beckman, T. (2010) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/15298868.2010.497376 · Cited by 37
The moderating impact of self‐esteem on self‐affirmation effects
Düring, C., & Jessop, D. C. (2014) · British Journal of Health Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjhp.12097 · Cited by 43
Self-Esteem, Reflected Appraisals, and Self-Views
Asencio, E. K. (2013) · Social Psychology Quarterly · doi:10.1177/0190272513504222 · Cited by 37
“Baumeister and colleagues suggest that threats to egos of high self-esteem individuals may cause violent behavior (Baumeister et al. 1996).”
Background
Reactivity and distortions in the self: Narcissism, types of aggression, and the functioning of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis during early adolescence
Bukowski, W. M., Schwartzman, A. E., Santo, J. B., Bagwell, C. L., & Adams, R. E. (2009) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579409990149 · Cited by 37
“Baumeister, Smart, and Boden (1996) proposed that an inflated sense of self is fragile and can be threatened easily.”
Background
Age as double‐edged sword among victims of customer mistreatment: A self‐esteem threat perspective
Amarnani, R. K., Restubog, S. L. D., Bordia, P., & Abbasi, A. A. (2019) · Human Resource Management · doi:10.1002/hrm.21949 · Cited by 40
Emerging adult reactions to labeling regarding age-group differences in narcissism and entitlement
Grubbs, J. B., Exline, J. J., McCain, J., Campbell, W. K., & Twenge, J. M. (2019) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0215637 · Cited by 39
CEO elitist association: Toward a new understanding of an executive behavioral pattern
Chen, G., Treviño, L. K., & Hambrick, D. C. (2009) · The Leadership Quarterly · doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2009.03.003 · Cited by 38
Why good guys finish last
Sumanth, J. J., Mayer, D. M., & Kay, V. S. (2011) · Organizational Psychology Review · doi:10.1177/2041386611398283 · Cited by 40
Collective angst: How threats to the future vitality of the ingroup shape intergroup emotion.
Wohl, M. J. A., & Branscombe, N. R. (2008) · American Psychological Association eBooks · doi:10.1037/11771-016 · Cited by 38
What Cognitions Predict State Anger?
Digiuseppe, R. A., & Froh, J. J. (2002) · Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1023/a:1019835215935 · Cited by 37
“More recently, Baumeister, Smart, and Boden (1996) suggested that unstable, high self-esteem, rather than low self-esteem, moderates anger.”
Background
Self as an antecedent of mobile phone addiction
Khang, H., Woo, H. J., & Kim, J. K. (2012) · International Journal of Mobile Communications · doi:10.1504/ijmc.2012.044523 · Cited by 36
Why Seemingly Trivial Events Sometimes Evoke Strong Emotional Reactions: The Role of Social Exchange Rule Violations
Leary, M. R., Diebels, K. J., Jongman-Sereno, K. P., & Fernandez, X. D. (2015) · The Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/00224545.2015.1084985 · Cited by 37
Disparate dimensions of a Mekeo socio‐moral order: Values, emotions and dispositions in language, discourse and practice
Jones, A. B. (2015) · The Australian Journal of Anthropology · doi:10.1111/taja.12159 · Cited by 36
Building Emotional Safety for Students in School Environments: Challenges and Opportunities
Shean, M., & Mander, D. J. (2020) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-981-15-3959-6_12 · Cited by 52
Brand transgressions: How, when, and why home country bias backfires
Davvetas, V., Ulqinaku, A., & Katsikeas, C. S. (2024) · Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science · doi:10.1007/s11747-024-01018-9 · Cited by 36
“…as a threat to their self-esteem, they enter a defensive mode, distance themselves from the transgressive act, respond negatively (or even aggres - sively) to the source of the threat (Baumeister et al., 1996 ), and become less willing to forgive the wrongdoer (Strelan & Zdaniuk, 2015 ).”
Contingent on contingencies: Connections between anger rumination, self-esteem, and aggression
Turner, K. A., & White, B. C. (2015) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2015.03.023 · Cited by 36
Dark Knights: When and Why an Employee Becomes a Workplace Vigilante
DeCelles, K. A., & Aquino, K. F. (2019) · Academy of Management Review · doi:10.5465/amr.2017.0300 · Cited by 36
Humility and Religion: Benefits, Difficulties, and a Model of Religious Tolerance
Woodruff, E. J., Tongeren, D. R. V., McElroy, S. E., Davis, D. E., & Hook, J. N. (2014) · Cross-cultural advancements in positive psychology · doi:10.1007/978-94-017-8950-9_14 · Cited by 35
How Do Individuals with Fragile High Self-esteem Cope with Intrusive Thoughts Following Ego Threat?
Borton, J. L. S., Crimmins, A. E., Ashby, R. S., & Ruddiman, J. F. (2010) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/15298868.2010.500935 · Cited by 36
“Indeed, individuals with high, but ill-founded, self-esteem are more aggressive in the face of ego-threat than are individuals with low self-esteem (Baumeister, Bushman, & Campbell, 2000a ; Baumeister, Smart, & Boden, 1996 ).”
Evaluation of an Inmate-Run Alternatives to Violence Project
Walrath, C. (2001) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/088626001016007005 · Cited by 36
“Alternatively, a recent review of the literature suggests that highly favorable views of self (coupled with threats to the ego) may be linked to violent behavior in a variety of groups, including inmates ( Baumeister, Smart, & Boden, 1996 ).”
Background
Imprisonment of Juveniles and Adolescents: Deficits and Demands for Developmental Research
Greve, W. (2001) · Applied Developmental Science · doi:10.1207/s1532480xads0501_3 · Cited by 37
“Baumeister, Smart, and Boden (1996) convincingly argued that the proper interpretation ought to address not the actual degree of self-esteem but the degree of threat to that self-esteem.”
Background
Children's violence to parents : a critical literature review
Gallagher, E. A. (2022) · Figshare · doi:10.26180/19571326 · Cited by 36
Self-Esteem
Zeigler‐Hill, V., Jordan, C., & Cameron, J. J. (2013) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/obo/9780199828340-0124 · Cited by 39
Rethinking Intractable Conflict: The Perspective of Dynamical Systems
Vallacher, R. R., Coleman, P. T., Nowak, A. K., & Bui‐Wrzosinska, L. (2011) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4419-9994-8_4 · Cited by 37
Adolescence and Well-Being
Žukauskienė, R. (2013) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-90-481-9063-8_67 · Cited by 45
Using self-esteem instability to disentangle the connection between self-esteem level and perceived aggression
Zeigler‐Hill, V., Enjaian, B., Holden, C. J., & Southard, A. C. (2014) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2014.01.003 · Cited by 35
Never Let Them See You Cry
Bernstein, M. J., Claypool, H. M., Young, S. G., Tuscherer, T., Sacco, D. F., & Brown, C. M. (2013) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167213495281 · Cited by 37
“This type of self-esteem, it has been suggested, may be related to aggressive behavior (Baumeister et al., 1996).”
Background
The Dark Side of Groups
Stein, M., & Pinto, J. (2011) · Group & Organization Management · doi:10.1177/1059601111423533 · Cited by 34
Bullying in schools and its relation to parenting and family life
Rigby, K. (2013) · Adelaide Research & Scholarship (AR&S) (University of Adelaide) · Cited by 35
When performance gets personal: Towards a theory of performance-based identity
Walker, B. W., & Caprar, D. V. (2019) · Human Relations · doi:10.1177/0018726719851835 · Cited by 36
How Ingratiation Links to Counterproductive Work Behaviors: The Roles of Emotional Exhaustion and Power Distance Orientation
Yan, M., Xie, Y., Zhao, J., Zhang, Y., Bashir, M., & Liu, Y. (2020) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2020.02238 · Cited by 39
'Narcissism Creep?': Evidence for Age-Related Differences in Narcissism in the New Zealand General Population
Wilson, M., & Sibley, C. G. (2011) · New Zealand journal of psychology · Cited by 35
Increases in global and domain specific self-esteem following a 10 day developmental voyage
Grocott, A. C., & Hunter, J. A. (2009) · Social Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/s11218-008-9088-5 · Cited by 34
“Sometimes such individuals will respond with aggression when their self-esteem is threatened, engage in dubious acts and display increased levels of prejudice (e.g. Aberson et al. 2000; Baumeister et al. 1996; Emler 2001).”
Background
Is Cyberbullying An Extension of Traditional Bullying or a Unique Phenomenon? A Longitudinal Investigation Among College Students
Kowalski, R. M., Giumetti, G. W., & Feinn, R. (2022) · International Journal of Bullying Prevention · doi:10.1007/s42380-022-00154-6 · Cited by 40
“Another possibility is that the fragile self-view held by individuals higher in narcissism may predispose them to perceive more threats (such as CV or TV) in their environment (Baumeister et al., 1996).”
Background
Apparent motives for aggression in the social context of the bar.
Graham, K., Bernards, S., Osgood, D. W., Parks, M. J., Abbey, A., Felson, R. B., Saltz, R. F., & Wells, S. L. (2012) · Psychology of Violence · doi:10.1037/a0029677 · Cited by 34
How guilt affects consumption intention: the role of rumination, emotional support and shame
Saintives, C., & Lunardo, R. (2016) · Journal of Consumer Marketing · doi:10.1108/jcm-12-2014-1265 · Cited by 31
Beyond Tit-for-Tat: Theorizing Divergent Employee Reactions to Customer Mistreatment
Amarnani, R. K., Bordia, P., & Restubog, S. L. D. (2018) · Group & Organization Management · doi:10.1177/1059601118755239 · Cited by 36
I hope to protect myself from the threat: The impact of self-threat on prevention-versus promotion-focused hope
Choi, T. R., Choi, J. H., & Sung, Y. (2018) · Journal of Business Research · doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2018.03.010 · Cited by 34
My way or the highway: High narcissism and low self‐esteem predict decreased support for democracy
Marchlewska, M., Castellanos, K. A., Lewczuk, K., Kofta, M., & Cichocka, A. K. (2018) · British Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjso.12290 · Cited by 34
Gender-role identity and hypermasculinity in violent offending
Beesley, F., & McGuire, J. (2009) · Psychology Crime and Law · doi:10.1080/10683160802190988 · Cited by 34
“The model forwarded by Baumeister et al. (1996) suggests in contrast that high self-esteem may be linked with a tendency towards violence in some circumstances.”
BackgroundMethodInfluential
The renunciation of love: Dismissive attachment and its treatment.
Connors, M. E. (1997) · Psychoanalytic Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0079736 · Cited by 34
Delicate Snowflakes and Broken Bonds: A Conceptualization of Consumption-Based Offense
Liu, P. J., Lamberton, C. P., Bettman, J. R., & Fitzsimons, G. J. (2018) · Journal of Consumer Research · doi:10.1093/jcr/ucy051 · Cited by 34
Frustration and Anger in GamesPreprint
Battigalli, P., Dufwenberg, M. A., & Smith, A. (2015) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.2591839 · Cited by 34
“Remark 4 If Bij is de ned by (14), then it satis es (13).”
Contexto social, género y competencia social autoevaluada en alumnos andaluces de 11-12 años
Torres, M. V. T., Cardelle-Elawar, M., Blanca, M. J., & Sánchez, Á. M. M. (2017) · Electronic Journal of Research in Educational Psychology · doi:10.25115/ejrep.2.109 · Cited by 33
Association Between Socio-Demographic Background and Self-Esteem of University Students
Haq, M. A. U. (2016) · Psychiatric Quarterly · doi:10.1007/s11126-016-9423-5 · Cited by 33
“What do you call a Black guy who flies a plane?”: The effects and understanding of disparagement and confrontational racial humor
Saucier, D. A., Strain, M. L., Miller, S. S., O’Dea, C. J., & Till, D. F. (2018) · Humor - International Journal of Humor Research · doi:10.1515/humor-2017-0107 · Cited by 33
Ego depletion and the use of force: Investigating the effects of ego depletion on police officers’ intention to use force
Staller, M. S., Müller, M., Christiansen, P., Zaiser, B., Körner, S., & Cole, J. C. (2018) · Aggressive Behavior · doi:10.1002/ab.21805 · Cited by 37
Extending Steinberg's adolescent model of risk taking to the explanation of crime and delinquency: Are impulsivity and sensation seeking enough?
Armstrong, T. A., Boisvert, D. L., Wells, J., & Lewis, R. H. (2020) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2020.110133 · Cited by 32
Core Self-Evaluations, Self-Leadership, and the Self-Serving Bias in Managerial Decision Making: A Laboratory Experiment
Cristofaro, M., & Giardino, P. L. (2020) · Administrative Sciences · doi:10.3390/admsci10030064 · Cited by 43
“…to their level of self-esteem, react in a different manner when they have to face negative outcomes: those with a high level of self-esteem are likely to behave more defensively (Baumeister et al. 1993, 1996; Blaine and Crocker 1993), embodying this defensiveness via an emphasized level of SSB.”
Background
Evaluation of an Anger Therapy Intervention for Incarcerated Adult Males
Vannoy, S. D., & Hoyt, W. T. (2004) · Journal of Offender Rehabilitation · doi:10.1300/j076v39n02_03 · Cited by 33
“Recent investigations have supported the hypothesis that egotism is a predictor of aggressive, violent behavior (Baumeister et al., 2000; Baumeister et al., 1996; Bushman & Baumeister, 1998; Kernis, Grannermann & Barclay, 1989).”
Self-Esteem and Affect as Information
Harber, K. D. (2004) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167204271323 · Cited by 36
Age matters: How developmental stages of adulthood affect customer reaction to complaint handling efforts
Roschk, H., Müller, J., & Gelbrich, K. (2012) · Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services · doi:10.1016/j.jretconser.2012.11.002 · Cited by 33
ADHD and comorbid conduct problems among adolescents: associations with self-esteem and substance use
Glass, K., Flory, K., Martin, A. M., & Hankin, B. L. (2010) · ADHD Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorders · doi:10.1007/s12402-010-0042-y · Cited by 34
“These results stand in contrast to literature by Baumeister et al. (1996) , which suggests that adolescents with high self-esteem actually have higher rates of behavior problems than those with low self-esteem.”
Result
Three Ideologies of Individualism: Toward Assimilating a Theory of Individualisms and their Consequences
Greene, T. (2008) · Critical Sociology · doi:10.1177/0896920507084628 · Cited by 36
“Similarly, children whose high self-esteem is not balanced by pro-social values are likely to develop narcissistic tendencies, possessing grandiose views of themselves while generating hostile attitudes toward others (Baumeister et al., 1996).”
Background
Narcissism, Entitlement, and Questionable Research Practices in Counseling: A Pilot Study
Davis, M. S., Wester, K. L., & King, B. A. (2008) · Journal of Counseling & Development · doi:10.1002/j.1556-6678.2008.tb00498.x · Cited by 33
Perceptions of entrepreneurship as a career option in South Africa: An exploratory study among grade 12 learners
Burger, L., Mahadea, D., & O'Neill, C. (2004) · South African Journal of Economic and Management Sciences · doi:10.4102/sajems.v7i2.1376 · Cited by 33
“Selfesteem is no indication of skill or aptitude, because it can be either realistic or unrealistic and can differ between various life areas (Baumeister et al., 1996: 5- 33).”
Background
Saying no to the glow: When consumers avoid arrogant brands
Munichor, N., & Steinhart, Y. (2016) · Journal of Consumer Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jcps.2015.05.004 · Cited by 35
Research-Based Interventions on Bullying
Juvonen, J., & Graham, S. (2004) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-012617955-2/50016-3 · Cited by 33
The money attitude of covert and overt narcissists
Ng, H. K. S., Tam, K., & Shu, T. (2011) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2011.03.036 · Cited by 32
Difficulties generating self-compassion: An interpretative phenomenological analysis
Bayir, A., & Lomas, T. (2016) · UEL Research Repository (University of East London) · Cited by 32
Attending to the role of identity exploration in self-esteem
Soenens, B., Berzonsky, M. D., & Papini, D. R. (2015) · International Journal of Behavioral Development · doi:10.1177/0165025415602560 · Cited by 32
The Short Dark Triad (SD3): Adaptation and Psychometrics among At-Risk Male and Female Youths
Pechorro, P. S., Caramelo, V., Oliveira, J. P., Nunes, C., Curtis, S. R., & Jones, D. N. (2018) · Deviant Behavior · doi:10.1080/01639625.2017.1421120 · Cited by 32
Reactive and proactive aggression as meaningful distinctions at the variable and person level in primary school‐aged children
Carroll, A., McCarthy, M., Houghton, S. J., O’Connor, E. S., & Zadow, C. (2018) · Aggressive Behavior · doi:10.1002/ab.21763 · Cited by 37
From Teachers’ Mindfulness to Students’ Thriving: the Mindful Self in School Relationships (MSSR) Model
Lavy, S., & Berkovich‐Ohana, A. (2020) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-020-01418-2 · Cited by 42
Examining boss phubbing and employee outcomes through the lens of affective events theory
Khan, M. N., Shahzad, K., & Bartels, J. (2021) · Aslib Journal of Information Management · doi:10.1108/ajim-07-2021-0198 · Cited by 32
How the Big Five personality traits related to aggression from perspectives of the benign and malicious envy
Jiang, X., Li, X., Dong, X., & Wang, L. (2022) · BMC Psychology · doi:10.1186/s40359-022-00906-5 · Cited by 32
“Aggression manifests itself in the form of war, terrorism, and assassination [3].”
Background
Adding insult to injury: effects of interpersonal rejection types, rejection sensitivity, and self‐regulation on obsessive relational intrusion
Sinclair, H. C., Ladny, R. T., & Lyndon, A. E. (2011) · Aggressive Behavior · doi:10.1002/ab.20412 · Cited by 32
“The desire to lash out may then rise [Baumeister and Vohs, 2004; Baumeister et al., 1996; Bushman and Baumeister, 1998; Twenge and Campbell, 2003], potentially including engaging in stalking [Cupach and Spitzberg, 2004; Meloy, 1998].”
Background
Domestic violence in Iran: A literature review
Pournaghash-Tehrani, S. (2010) · Aggression and Violent Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.avb.2010.12.001 · Cited by 36
Juvenile Delinquency and Psychopathic Traits
Pechorro, P. S., Gonçalves, R. A., Marôco, J. P., Gama, A. P., de Jesús, S. N., & Nunes, C. (2012) · International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology · doi:10.1177/0306624x12465584 · Cited by 32
On the Prioritized Processing of Threat in a Dual Implicit Process Model of Evaluation
March, D. S., Gaertner, L., & Olson, M. A. (2018) · Psychological Inquiry · doi:10.1080/1047840x.2018.1435680 · Cited by 34
Reducing anger induced by ego threat: Use of vulnerability expression and influence of trait characteristics
Bond, A. J., Ruaro, L., & Wingrove, J. (2006) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2005.12.002 · Cited by 34
Academic Cheating is Contagious: the Influence of the Presence of Others on Honesty. a Study Report
Błachnio, A., & Weremko, M. (2012) · International journal of applied psychology · doi:10.5923/j.ijap.20110101.02 · Cited by 33
“It is also possible here to refer to the study results demonstrating that individuals with high self-esteem undertake more risky actions, whereas individuals with low self-esteem may adopt the attitude of risk avoidance[26].”
Result
Associations among adverse childhood experiences, aggression, depression, and self-esteem in serious female juvenile offenders in Japan
Matsuura, N., Hashimoto, T., & Toichi, M. (2012) · Journal of Forensic Psychiatry and Psychology · doi:10.1080/14789949.2012.746384 · Cited by 31
“Baumeister et al. (1996) suggest that narrowminded narcissism, not self-esteem, leads to aggressive behavior.”
Background
Focus of attention at work and organization‐based self‐esteem
Gardner, D. G., & Pierce, J. L. (2013) · Journal of Managerial Psychology · doi:10.1108/02683941311300243 · Cited by 31
The determinants of driving aggression among Polish drivers
Przepiórka, A., Błachnio, A., & Wiesenthal, D. L. (2014) · Transportation Research Part F Traffic Psychology and Behaviour · doi:10.1016/j.trf.2014.09.007 · Cited by 31
Mass Murder and the Violent Paranoid Spectrum
Knoll, J. L., & Meloy, J. R. (2014) · Psychiatric Annals · doi:10.3928/00485713-20140502-07 · Cited by 33
Undergraduates’ Attitudes toward Dating Violence: Its Relationship with Sexism and Narcissism
Erdem, A., & Şahin, R. (2017) · International Journal of Higher Education · doi:10.5430/ijhe.v6n6p91 · Cited by 31
Narcissism, self-esteem, and conduct problems
Ha, C., Petersen, N. J., & Sharp, C. (2008) · European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.1007/s00787-008-0682-z · Cited by 31
“Like Baumeister and colleagues’ study [5], our findings highlight the dark side of high self esteem’ as Baumeister imaginatively described it.”
Background
The Dynamics of Emotions and Life Cycle Identity
Strayer, J. (2002) · Identity · doi:10.1207/s1532706xid0201_04 · Cited by 32
A comprehensive treatment model for anger disorders.
Digiuseppe, R. A., & Tafrate, R. C. (2001) · Psychotherapy · doi:10.1037/0033-3204.38.3.262 · Cited by 36
Self-Esteem Instability and Humor Styles: Does the Stability of Self-Esteem Influence How People Use Humor?
Vaughan, J. E., Zeigler‐Hill, V., & Arnau, R. C. (2014) · The Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/00224545.2014.896773 · Cited by 30
Heightened male aggression toward sexualized women following romantic rejection: The mediating role of sex goal activation
Blake, K. R., Bastian, B. B., & Denson, T. F. (2017) · Aggressive Behavior · doi:10.1002/ab.21722 · Cited by 30
“Such discrepancies can elicit aggression toward the source of the unfavorable appraisal due to elevated negative affect or a desire to fulfill a social aim (e.g., enacting punishment; Baumeister et al., 1996).”
Background

Authors: Baumeister, R. F., Smart, L., & Boden, J. M.
Affiliations: Case Western Reserve University (US)
ORCID: Baumeister, Roy F.
Boden, Joseph M.
Venue: Psychological Review
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 1996
Volume: 103
Issue: 1
Pages: 5-33
ISSN: 0033-295X (ISSN-L)
1939-1471
DOI: 10.1037/0033-295x.103.1.5
OpenAlex: W2100354065
Cited by: 2,378
References: 183
Citations by year: 2026: 35 · 2025: 57 · 2024: 65 · 2023: 97 · 2022: 96 · 2021: 97 · 2020: 75 · 2019: 86 · 2018: 90 · 2017: 111 · 2016: 113 · 2015: 125 · 2014: 122 · 2013: 139 · 2012: 130
FWCI: 55.15
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Psychological Review (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders: National Institutes of Health (5r01mh043826-02, 5r01mh051482-03)
National Institute of Mental Health (MH 43826, MH-51482)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Bullying, Victimization, and Aggression
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Death Anxiety and Social Exclusion
Keywords: self-esteem, aggression, violence, crime, self-concept, anger
MeSH terms: Aggression, Anger, Crime, Defense Mechanisms, Dominance-Subordination, Humans, Internal-External Control, Power, Psychological, Self Concept, Violence

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review

Relation of threatened egotism to violence and aggression: The dark side of high self-esteem.

Abstract

Overview

Integrity signals

Verification

Claims the paper makes

Claims other papers make about this one

Citations

Cites

Cited by

Related

Metadata

Record

About these checks