Cited by 2,378Bullying, Victimization, and AggressionPersonality Traits and PsychologyDeath Anxiety and Social Exclusion

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Relation of threatened egotism to violence and aggression: The dark side of high self-esteem.

Baumeister, Roy F., Smart, Laura, Boden, Joseph M.·1996·Psychological Review

DOI 10.1037/0033-295x.103.1.5

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Abstract

Conventional wisdom has regarded low self-esteem as an important cause of violence, but the opposite view is theoretically viable. An interdisciplinary review of evidence about aggression, crime, and violence contradicted the view that low self-esteem is an important cause. Instead, violence appears to be most commonly a result of threatened egotism--that is, highly favorable views of self that are disputed by some person or circumstance. Inflated, unstable, or tentative beliefs in the self's superiority may be most prone to encountering threats and hence to causing violence. The mediating process may involve directing anger outward as a way of avoiding a downward revision of the self-concept.

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Crossing the line: The violating effects of illegitimate interruptions from work and the differential impact on work‐to‐family conflict by gender
Grotto, A. R., & Mills, M. J. (2023) · Journal of Organizational Behavior · doi:10.1002/job.2689 · Cited by 27
The role of self‐control and self‐esteem and the impact of early risk factors among violent offenders
Woessner, G., & Schneider, S. (2013) · Criminal Behaviour and Mental Health · doi:10.1002/cbm.1863 · Cited by 25
Role of Moral Identity and Moral Courage Characteristics in Adolescents’ Tendencies to Be a Moral Rebel
Sonnentag, T. L., & Barnett, M. A. (2015) · Ethics & Behavior · doi:10.1080/10508422.2015.1012765 · Cited by 30
“For example, Baumeister, Smart, and Boden (1996) found that threats to some individuals with high self-esteem tend to promote violent and aggressive behaviors toward others rather than a more adaptive and moral interpersonal response.”
Background
Gratitude and the self: Amplifying the good within
Homan, K., & Hosack, L. (2019) · Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment · doi:10.1080/10911359.2019.1630345 · Cited by 33
Do Good Principals Do Bad Things? Examining Bounds Of Ethical Behavior In The Context Of High-Stakes Accountability
DeMatthews, D. E., & Serafini, A. (2019) · Leadership and Policy in Schools · doi:10.1080/15700763.2019.1668023 · Cited by 25
Social-emotional world: Mapping a continent
Scheff, T. J. (2011) · Current Sociology · doi:10.1177/0011392111400787 · Cited by 27
“These latter studies might provide a way out of the dilemma reported by Baumeister and his colleagues (Baumeister and Boden, 1998; Baumeister et al., 1996).”
Background
Patterns of actual and perceived control: are control profiles differentially related to internalizing and externalizing problems in youth?
Scott, B. G., & Weems, C. F. (2010) · Anxiety Stress & Coping · doi:10.1080/10615801003611479 · Cited by 29
“, unfavorable peer evaluations) aggressive behavior may arise (Boxtel et al., 2004). Furthermore, a consistent relation between externalizing problems and locus of control has been supported by previous research findings (Halloran, Doumas, John, & Margolin, 1999; Jackson, Frick, & Dravage-Bush, 2000; Sadowski & Wenzel…”
Result
Aggression and offence motivation in prisoners: exploring the components of motivation in an adult male sample
Ohlsson, I. M., & Ireland, J. L. (2011) · Aggressive Behavior · doi:10.1002/ab.20386 · Cited by 29
“SIT provides a useful explanation, therefore, for aggression motivated by social goals [Baumeister et al., 1996].”
Background
Personality traits predicting anger in self-, ambiguous-, and other caused unpleasant situations
Kuppens, P., & Tuerlinckx, F. (2006) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2006.09.011 · Cited by 25
“In general, in terms of mere level of self-esteem, it is assumed that low levels of self-esteem predispose towards anger,1 although the found relations have been inconsistent and weak (e.g., Baumeister et al., 1996; Esposito, Kobak, & Little, 2005).”
Result
Relaciones entre violencia escolar y autoconcepto multidimensional en adolescentes de Educación Secundaria Obligatoria
la Torre, M. J. D., García, M. C. C., Carpio, M. D. L. V. T., & Arias, P. F. C. (2008) · European Journal of Education and Psychology · doi:10.30552/ejep.v1i2.9 · Cited by 25
Empathie, contagion émotionnelle et coupure par rapport aux émotions : validation d’un test pour repérer et aider des élèves à risque
Favre, D., Joly, J., Reynaud, C., & Salvador, L.-L. (2009) · European Review of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.erap.2009.03.004 · Cited by 25
[Hardy personality and psychological capital: the positive personal variables and the processes of exhaustion and vigor].
Jiménez, B. M., Garrosa, E., Corso-de-Zúñiga, S., Boada, M., & Rodríguez‐Carvajal, R. (2012) · PubMed · Cited by 25
Retaliating against Customer Interpersonal Injustice in a S ingaporean Context: Moderating Roles of Self‐Efficacy and Social Support
Ho, V. T., & Gupta, N. (2012) · Applied Psychology · doi:10.1111/j.1464-0597.2012.00529.x · Cited by 27
Mirror, mirror, on the wall, who’s the most aggressive of them all? Narcissism, self-esteem, and aggression.
Thomaes, S. C. E., & Bushman, B. J. (2010) · American Psychological Association eBooks · doi:10.1037/12346-011 · Cited by 25
The Self in Social Rejection
Pass, J. A., & Nooij, J. (2009) · doi:10.13140/rg.2.2.31965.12009 · Cited by 25
DRUG TREATMENT COURTS AND THE DISEASE PARADIGM*
Nolan, J. L. (2002) · Substance Use & Misuse · doi:10.1081/ja-120014428 · Cited by 25
Do Delinquent Young Adults Have a High or a Low Level of Self-concept?
van de Schoot, R., & Wong, T. M. L. (2011) · Self and Identity · doi:10.1080/15298868.2010.517713 · Cited by 25
Distinguishing the subjective and the objective aspects of self‐concept clarity
Guerrettaz, J., & Arkin, R. M. (2016) · Social and Personality Psychology Compass · doi:10.1111/spc3.12243 · Cited by 29
The Role of Narcissistic Hypocrisy in the Development of Accounting Estimates
Hayes, M. J., & Reckers, P. M. J. (2019) · Contemporary Accounting Research · doi:10.1111/1911-3846.12552 · Cited by 24

Authors: Baumeister, R. F., Smart, L., & Boden, J. M.
Affiliations: Case Western Reserve University (US)
ORCID: Baumeister, Roy F.
Boden, Joseph M.
Venue: Psychological Review
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 1996
Volume: 103
Issue: 1
Pages: 5-33
ISSN: 0033-295X (ISSN-L)
1939-1471
DOI: 10.1037/0033-295x.103.1.5
OpenAlex: W2100354065
Cited by: 2,378
References: 183
Citations by year: 2026: 35 · 2025: 57 · 2024: 65 · 2023: 97 · 2022: 96 · 2021: 97 · 2020: 75 · 2019: 86 · 2018: 90 · 2017: 111 · 2016: 113 · 2015: 125 · 2014: 122 · 2013: 139 · 2012: 130
FWCI: 55.15
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Psychological Review (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders: National Institutes of Health (5r01mh043826-02, 5r01mh051482-03)
National Institute of Mental Health (MH 43826, MH-51482)
Topics: Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Bullying, Victimization, and Aggression
Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Death Anxiety and Social Exclusion
Keywords: self-esteem, aggression, violence, crime, self-concept, anger
MeSH terms: Aggression, Anger, Crime, Defense Mechanisms, Dominance-Subordination, Humans, Internal-External Control, Power, Psychological, Self Concept, Violence

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Relation of threatened egotism to violence and aggression: The dark side of high self-esteem.

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