The DOI matches its Crossref record; 104 of the 104 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
A hot/cool-system analysis of delay of gratification: dynamics of willpower
Abstract
A 2-system framework is proposed for understanding the processes that enable--and undermine--self-control or "willpower" as exemplified in the delay of gratification paradigm. A cool, cognitive "know" system and a hot, emotional "go" system are postulated. The cool system is cognitive, emotionally neutral, contemplative, flexible, integrated, coherent, spatiotemporal, slow, episodic, and strategic. It is the seat of self-regulation and self-control. The hot system is the basis of emotionality, fears as well as passions--impulsive and reflexive--initially controlled by innate releasing stimuli (and, thus, literally under "stimulus control"): it is fundamental for emotional (classical) conditioning and undermines efforts at self-control. The balance between the hot and cool systems is determined by stress, developmental level, and the individual's self-regulatory dynamics. The interactions between these systems allow explanation of findings on willpower from 3 decades of research.
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“Mindful awareness and a better “metacognitive” understanding of our decision-making processes are also likely to result in decreased “mindless” eating13 and increased behavioral adherence.14”
From The mind your health project: a randomized controlled trial of an innovative behavioral treatment for obesity (2013) · cites this paper as [14]
Citations
Cites
Gottfredson, M. R., & Hirschi, T. (1990) · doi:10.1515/9781503621794 · Cited by 10,127
A social-cognitive approach to motivation and personality.
Dweck, C. S., & Leggett, E. L. (1988) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.95.2.256 · Cited by 9,745
THE PSYCHOLOGY OF PERSONAL CONSTRUCTS
Bannister, D., & Fransella, F. (2010) · Taylor & Francis eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203405321_chapter_1 · Cited by 8,589
Feeling and thinking: Preferences need no inferences.
Zajonc, R. B. (1980) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.35.2.151 · Cited by 8,094
(1978) · UA Campus Repository (The University of Arizona) · Cited by 8,010
The relation of strength of stimulus to rapidity of habit formation
Yerkes, R. M., & Dodson, J. D. (1908) · Journal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology · doi:10.1002/cne.920180503 · Cited by 6,911
Higgins, E. T. (1997) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.52.12.1280 · Cited by 6,775
Cognitive, social, and physiological determinants of emotional state.
Schachter, S., & Singer, J. (1962) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/h0046234 · Cited by 6,223
Conflict, arousal, and curiosity.
Berlyne, D. E. (1960) · McGraw-Hill Book Company · doi:10.1037/11164-000 · Cited by 6,018
Psychosocial resilience and protective mechanisms.
Rutter, M. (1987) · American Journal of Orthopsychiatry · doi:10.1111/j.1939-0025.1987.tb03541.x · Cited by 5,831
Social psychology: handbook of basic principles
Higgins, E., & Kruglanski, A. (2008) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.45-3496 · Cited by 5,535
Tulving, E. (1985) · Canadian Psychology / Psychologie canadienne · doi:10.1037/h0080017 · Cited by 4,638
Self-schemata and processing information about the self.
Markus, H. R. (1977) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.35.2.63 · Cited by 3,911
Mischel, W., & Shoda, Y. (1995) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.102.2.246 · Cited by 3,889
Self-citationSkinner, B. F. (1938) · Cited by 3,571
Promotion and Prevention: Regulatory Focus as A Motivational Principle
Higgins, E. T. (1998) · Advances in Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/s0065-2601(08)60381-0 · Cited by 3,511
Action control : from cognition to behavior
Kühl, J., & Beckmann, J. (1985) · Cited by 3,444
Delay of gratification in children.
Mischel, W., Shoda, Y., & Rodriguez, M. L. (1989) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.2658056 · Cited by 3,397
Self-citationImplicit memory: History and current status.
Schacter, D. L. (1987) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition · doi:10.1037/0278-7393.13.3.501 · Cited by 2,983 · cited 1×
“…& Goldsmith, 1996; Metcalfe, 1993, 1996), and also with much of the work on nonemotional implicit memory processes (e.g., Graf & Schacter, 1985; Schacter, 1987, though some of the work on implicit memory with emotional conditioning, we would consider to be hot-system specific), as well as…”
BackgroundAttention and Self-Regulation : A Control-Theory Approach to Human Behavior
Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (1981) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 2,580
Self-regulation failure: an overview.
Baumeister, R. F., & Heatherton, T. F. (1996) · Psychological Inquiry · doi:10.1207/s15327965pli0701_1 · Cited by 2,266
Implicit and explicit memory for new associations in normal and amnesic subjects.
Graf, P., & Schacter, D. L. (1985) · Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition · doi:10.1037//0278-7393.11.3.501 · Cited by 1,872
(1994) · The MIT Press eBooks · doi:10.7551/mitpress/4561.001.0001 · Cited by 1,770
JACOBSON, L., & SAPOLSKY, R. (1991) · Endocrine Reviews · doi:10.1210/edrv-12-2-118 · Cited by 1,739
The amygdala: Neurobiological aspects of emotion, memory, and mental dysfunction.
Aggleton, J. P. (1992) · Wiley-Liss eBooks · Cited by 1,536
Zechmeister, E. B., Gruneberg, M. M., Morris, P. E., & Sykes, R. N. (1980) · The American Journal of Psychology · doi:10.2307/1422245 · Cited by 1,528
The Role of Ego-Control and Ego-Resiliency in the Organization of Behavior
BLOCK, J. H., & Block, J. (1980) · doi:10.4324/9781315803029-7 · Cited by 1,525
Bechara, A., Tranel, D., Damasio, H., Adolphs, R., Rockland, C., & Damasio, A. R. (1995) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.7652558 · Cited by 1,400
Cognitive and attentional mechanisms in delay of gratification.
Mischel, W., Ebbesen, E. Β., & Zeiss, A. R. (1972) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0032198 · Cited by 1,364
Self-citationShoda, Y., Mischel, W., & Peake, P. K. (1990) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.26.6.978 · Cited by 1,324
Self-citationBem, D. J., & Allen, A. (1974) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/h0037130 · Cited by 1,308
Why stress is bad for your brain
Sapolsky, R. M. (1996) · Science · doi:10.1126/science.273.5276.749 · Cited by 1,306
The nature of adolescent competencies predicted by preschool delay of gratification.
Mischel, W., Shoda, Y., & Peake, P. K. (1988) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.54.4.687 · Cited by 1,285
Self-citationMechanisms of Self-Regulation: A Systems View
Karoly, P. (1993) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.ps.44.020193.000323 · Cited by 1,258
Rees, G. E. (1999) · Journal of Psychophysiology · doi:10.1027//0269-8803.13.3.199 · Cited by 1,220
Cold Spring Harbor Symposia on Quantitative Biology.
Berg, H. (1989) · Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry · doi:10.1016/0022-0728(89)87283-3 · Cited by 1,152
Attention in delay of gratification.
Mischel, W., & Ebbesen, E. Β. (1970) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0029815 · Cited by 1,063
Self-citationMonitoring and control processes in the strategic regulation of memory accuracy.
Koriat, A., & Goldsmith, M. (1996) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.103.3.490 · Cited by 1,062
Kunda, Z., & Thagard, P. R. (1996) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.103.2.284 · Cited by 881
Baumeister, R. F. (1993) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4684-8956-9 · Cited by 862
Foundations of Social Psychology.
Schulman, G. I., JONES, E. E., & Gerard, H. B. (1968) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.2307/2092924 · Cited by 850
Preferences for sequences of outcomes.
Loewenstein, G. F., & Prelec, D. (1993) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.100.1.91 · Cited by 841
Personality and social intelligence
Cantor, N. E., & Kihlstrom, J. F. (1987) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 824
Processes in Delay of Gratification
Mischel, W. (1974) · Advances in experimental social psychology · doi:10.1016/s0065-2601(08)60039-8 · Cited by 822
Self-citationAltman, J., & Bayer, S. A. (1990) · Journal of Comparative Neurology · doi:10.1002/cne.903010304 · Cited by 819
History of motivational research in education.
Weiner, B. L. (1990) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.82.4.616 · Cited by 785
Social-Cognitive Mechanisms in the Development of Conduct Disorder and Depression
Dodge, K. A. (1993) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.ps.44.020193.003015 · Cited by 777
Diamond, D. M., Bennett, M. C., Fleshner, M., & Rose, G. M. (1992) · Hippocampus · doi:10.1002/hipo.450020409 · Cited by 688
Emotional Intelligence. New York (Bantam) 1995.
Goleman, D. (1995) · Cited by 666
From thought to behavior: "Having" and "doing" in the study of personality and cognition.
Cantor, N. L. (1990) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.45.6.735 · Cited by 665
When ego threats lead to self-regulation failure: Negative consequences of high self-esteem.
Baumeister, R. F., Heatherton, T. F., & Tice, D. M. (1993) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.64.1.141 · Cited by 578
Handbook of Perception and Cognition
(1994) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-08-057169-0.50001-2 · Cited by 577
The Volitional Benefits of Planning
Gollwitzer, P. M. (1996) · KOPS (University of Konstanz) · Cited by 576
Personality Psychology : Recent Trends And Emerging Directions
Buss, D. M., & Cantor, N. L. (1989) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 513
(1992) · Cited by 464
Cognitive appraisals and transformations in delay behavior.
Mischel, W., & Baker, N. (1975) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0076272 · Cited by 440
Self-citation(1989) · Choice Reviews Online · doi:10.5860/choice.27-2392 · Cited by 438
The Development of Children’s Knowledge of Self-Control Strategies
Mischel, H. N., & Mischel, W. (1987) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-70967-8_22 · Cited by 409
Self-citationControl of neuronal excitability by corticosteroid hormones
Joëls, M., & de Kloet, E. R. (1992) · Trends in Neurosciences · doi:10.1016/0166-2236(92)90345-9 · Cited by 405
Goal Effects on Action and Cognition
Gollwitzer, P. M., & Moskowitz, G. B. (1996) · KOPS (University of Konstanz) · Cited by 404
The collected papers of David Rapaport
Rapaport, D., & Gill, M. M. (1967) · Medical Entomology and Zoology · Cited by 400
Principles of self-regulation: The nature of willpower and self-control.
Mischel, W., Cantor, N. L., & Feldman, S. I. (1996) · Cited by 378
Self-citationPreference for delayed reward as a function of age, intelligence, and length of delay interval.
Mischel, W., & Metzner, R. (1962) · The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0045046 · Cited by 341
Self-citationAddictive Behaviors: Etiology And Treatment
Marlatt, G. A. (1988) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.39.1.223 · Cited by 325
Stress-induced recovery of fears and phobias.
Jacobs, W. J., & Nadel, L. (1985) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.92.4.512 · Cited by 322
Reasoning and learning by analogy: Introduction.
Gentner, D., & Holyoak, K. J. (1997) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.52.1.32 · Cited by 321
Automaticity in social psychology.
Bargh, J. A. (1996) · Cited by 301
Cahill, L., & McGaugh, J. L. (1996) · Current Opinion in Neurobiology · doi:10.1016/s0959-4388(96)80078-x · Cited by 301 · cited 1×
“Cahill and McGaugh (1996) have shown that when a person is administered propranolol, emotional situations that would normally be given preferential treatment in perception and memory are processed in an emotionally flat manner.”
BackgroundMotivated social cognition: Principles of the interface.
Kruglanski, A. W. (1996) · Cited by 291
Effects of attention to symbolically presented rewards on self-control.
Mischel, W., & Moore, B. S. (1973) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/h0035716 · Cited by 284
Self-citationGoals as knowledge structures.
Kruglanski, A. W. (1996) · Cited by 273
Cognitive person variables in the delay of gratification of older children at risk.
Rodríguez, M., Mischel, W., & Shoda, Y. (1989) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.57.2.358 · Cited by 255
Self-citationFrom good intentions to willpower.
Mischel, W. (1996) · Cited by 250
Self-citationSelf-esteem and "if . . .then" contingencies of interpersonal acceptance.
Baldwin, M. W., & Sinclair, L. (1996) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037//0022-3514.71.6.1130 · Cited by 244
Retrieval practice and the maintenance of knowledge.
Bjork, R. A. (1988) · Cited by 231
Influence of affect on cognitive social learning person variables.
Wright, J. C., & Mischel, W. (1982) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.43.5.901 · Cited by 226
Self-citationCognitive Science Foundations of Instruction
(2020) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315044712 · Cited by 219
Metcalfe, J. (1993) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.100.1.3 · Cited by 207
Self-citationComparative effects of the reward stimulus and its cognitive representation in voluntary delay.
Moore, B. S., Mischel, W., & Zeiss, A. M. (1976) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.34.3.419 · Cited by 191
Self-citationFormulations regarding the two principles in mental functioning.
Freud, S. (1951) · Columbia University Press eBooks · doi:10.1037/10584-015 · Cited by 167
Advances in Research and Theory
(1994) · The Psychology of learning and motivation/The psychology of learning and motivation · doi:10.1016/s0079-7421(08)x6028-1 · Cited by 157
Mood, self-efficacy, and performance standards: Lower moods induce higher standards for performance.
Cervone, D., Kopp, D. A., Schaumann, L., Scott, W. D., & al, E. (1994) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.67.3.499 · Cited by 148
Reinforcement in human behavior.
Estes, W. K. (1972) · PubMed · Cited by 125
Metaphors in motivation and attribution.
Weiner, B. L. (1991) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.46.9.921 · Cited by 122
Reis, H. T., & Rusbult, C. E. (2004) · Psychology Press eBooks · doi:10.4324/9780203311851-37 · Cited by 120
Metcalfe, J., & Jake Jacobs, W. (1998) · Psychology of Learning and Motivation · doi:10.1016/s0079-7421(08)60187-5 · Cited by 115
Self-citationYoung children's preferred attentional strategies for delaying gratification.
Yates, B. T., & Mischel, W. (1979) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.37.2.286 · Cited by 113
Self-citationSubstantive and structural elements of effective plans for self-control.
Mischel, W., & Patterson, C. J. (1976) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.34.5.942 · Cited by 91
Self-citationAmygdala and the memory of reward.
Gaffan, D. (1992) · Cited by 87
Health psychology through the life span: Practice and research opportunities.
(1996) · American Psychological Association eBooks · doi:10.1037/10220-000 · Cited by 73
Cervone, D., & Wood, R. E. (1995) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/bf02230512 · Cited by 73
The Psychoanalytic Theory of Thinking
Arlow, J. A. (1958) · Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association · doi:10.1177/000306515800600111 · Cited by 66
Cognitive Strategies as Personality: Effectiveness, Specificity, Flexibility, and Change
Norem, J. K. (1989) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4684-0634-4_4 · Cited by 58
Memory: Organization of Brain Systems and Cognition
Squire, L. R., Zola-Morgan, S. M., Cave, C. B., Haist, F., Musen, G., & SUZUKI, W. A. (1990) · The MIT Press eBooks · doi:10.7551/mitpress/1477.003.0027 · Cited by 58
Models of relapse and relapse prevention: A commentary.
Marlatt, G. A. (1996) · Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology · doi:10.1037/1064-1297.4.1.55 · Cited by 56
Self-Esteem, Self-Prediction, and Living up to Commitments
Heatherton, T. F., & Ambady, N. (1993) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-1-4684-8956-9_7 · Cited by 54
Dietary restraint: Some current findings and speculations.
Heatherton, T. F., Polivy, J., & Herman, C. P. (1990) · Psychology of Addictive Behaviors · doi:10.1037/h0080580 · Cited by 35
Motivational psychology and educational research1
Weiner, B. L. (1974) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1080/00461527409529130 · Cited by 33
From Cognition to Behavior: Perspectives for Future Research on Action Control
Kühl, J. (1985) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-642-69746-3_12 · Cited by 30
A goal analysis of personality and personality coherence.
Grant, H., & Dweck, C. S. (1999) · Cited by 23
The Role of Self-Referent Cognitions in Goal Setting, Motivation, and Performance
Cervone, D. (2020) · Routledge eBooks · doi:10.4324/9781315044712-3 · Cited by 22
People Who Fail at Self-Regulation: What Should We Think of Them--and How?
Cervone, D. (1996) · Psychological Inquiry · doi:10.1207/s15327965pli0701_7 · Cited by 9
The New Wave of Dynamism: Will it Engulf the Field?
Kruglanski, A. W., Clement, R. W., & Jost, J. T. (1997) · Psychological Inquiry · doi:10.1207/s15327965pli0802_8 · Cited by 4
Reducing college student binge drinking: A harm-reduction approach.
Marlatt, G. (1996) · American Psychological Association eBooks · doi:10.1037/10220-023 · Cited by 2
Cited by
Sorted by citations
The emotional dog and its rational tail: A social intuitionist approach to moral judgment.
Haidt, J. (2001) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.108.4.814 · Cited by 8,048
Construal-level theory of psychological distance.
Trope, Y., & Liberman, N. (2010) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/a0018963 · Cited by 6,618
Reflective and Impulsive Determinants of Social Behavior
Strack, F., & Deutsch, R. (2004) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1207/s15327957pspr0803_1 · Cited by 3,984
Steel, P. (2007) · Psychological bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.65 · Cited by 3,417
Implementation intentions and goal achievement: a meta-analysis of effects and processes
Gollwitzer, P. M., & Sheeran, P. (2006) · Advances in Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/s0065-2601(06)38002-1 · Cited by 3,236
“Such dilemmas between the head and the heart are commonplace (e.g., Loewenstein, Weber, Hsee, & Welch, 2001; Metcalfe & Mischel, 1999; Trafimow & Sheeran, 2004).”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Metcalfe, J., & Mischel, W.
- Affiliations
- Columbia University (US)
- ORCID
- Metcalfe, Janet
- Venue
- Psychological Review
- Published
- 1999
- Volume
- 106
- Issue
- 1
- Pages
- 3-19
- ISSN
- 0033-295X (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1471
- OpenAlex
- W2103902275
- Cited by
- 2,931
- References
- 104
- Citations by year
- 2026: 92 · 2025: 99 · 2024: 136 · 2023: 111 · 2022: 118 · 2021: 150 · 2020: 178 · 2019: 174 · 2018: 154 · 2017: 124 · 2016: 130 · 2015: 170 · 2014: 141 · 2013: 150 · 2012: 160
- FWCI
- 47.37
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Review (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Funders
- National Institute of Mental Health (MH39349, MH48066)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Applied Psychology › Behavioral Health and Interventions
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Grit, Self-Efficacy, and Motivation
- Keywords
- delay of gratification, willpower, self-control, two-system model, self-regulation, emotionality, impulsive behavior, stimulus control, emotional conditioning, stress, developmental level
- MeSH terms
- Humans, Disruptive, Impulse Control, and Conduct Disorders, Models, Psychological, Stress, Psychological, Self Psychology
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
