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Is there a universal need for positive self-regard?
Abstract
It is assumed that people seek positive self-regard; that is, they are motivated to possess, enhance, and maintain positive self-views. The cross-cultural generalizability of such motivations was addressed by examining Japanese culture. Anthropological, sociological, and psychological analyses revealed that many elements of Japanese culture are incongruent with such motivations. Moreover, the empirical literature provides scant evidence for a need for positive self-regard among Japanese and indicates that a self-critical focus is more characteristic of Japanese. It is argued that the need for self-regard must be culturally variant because the constructions of self and regard themselves differ across cultures. The need for positive self-regard, as it is currently conceptualized, is not a universal, but rather is rooted in significant aspects of North American culture. Conventional interpretations of positive self-regard are too narrow to encompass the Japanese experience.
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“These differences likely reflect Americans’ tendency to perceive the self in a more positive light than East Asians do (Heine, Lehman, Markus, & Kitayama, 1999), and that participants likely used their cultural group as a reference (Heine, Lehman, Peng, & Greenholtz, 2002).”
From Culture and Healthy Eating: The Role of Independence and Interdependence in the United States and Japan (2016) · cites this paper as Heine, Lehman, Markus, & Kitayama, 1999
In the citing paper
“norm-fulfillment may not affect self-esteem in Asia (Heine, Lehman, Markus, & Kitayama, 1999; but see Kobayashi & Brown, 2003;Kurman, 2003;Sedikides et al., 2005).”
From Cultural norm fulfillment, interpersonal belonging, or getting ahead? A large-scale cross-cultural test of three perspectives on the function of self-esteem. (2015) · cites this paper as Heine, Lehman, Markus, & Kitayama, 1999
In the citing paper
“It is universally adaptive to be viewed as good and worthy of high regard in one's culture”
From Implications of an Emerging Integration of Universal and Culturally Specific Psychologies (2006) · cites this paper as Heine et al., 1999
In the citing paper
“Members of collectivist cultures may thus be less motivated to protect self-integrity because their culture places less emphasis on esteeming the self (Heine et al., 1999).”
From The psychology of self-defense: Self-affirmation theory (2006) · cites this paper as Heine et al., 1999
In the citing paper
“In individualist cultures (such as the US), the self is a more bounded, autonomous entity, whereas in collectivist cultures (such as in East Asia), the self is more interconnected and tied to important relationships.”
From The psychology of self-defense: Self-affirmation theory (2006) · cites this paper as Heine et al., 1999
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“…society, the US culture encourages individuals to express their thoughts, fulfill their own needs, and pursue their own goals (Markus & Kitayama, 1991), all of which can lead to prioritizing individuals’ determination, self-confidence, and assertiveness (Heine et al., 1999; Rudy & Grusec, 2001).”
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“Divergent behaviours (i.e. discovering, actualising, and confirming self-attributes), and confrontational situations, may cause frictions within the group, undermine wa , and are therefore discouraged in favour of cooperativity (Heine et al. 1999; Kelley 2008).”
Lifintsev, D., Zelihic, M., Grebliauskienė, B., et al. (2025) · International Journal of Cross Cultural Management · doi:10.1177/14705958251319695 · Cited by 4
“Collectivistic cultures avoid direct and explicit confrontations, bank more on the context than on the content during interpersonal communication (Triandis, 2015), are more sensitive toward emotional contexts and its in fl uence on preferences and behaviors (Heine et al., 1999).”
Perceived corporate individualism culture and corporate bond issuing costs
Su, Y. (2025) · International Review of Financial Analysis · doi:10.1016/j.irfa.2025.104191 · Cited by 2
Meng, C., Zhang, L., Shang, Y., Liu, S., Liu, Y., Guo, Y., Deng, Z., & Gao, R. (2025) · Personality and Individual Differences · doi:10.1016/j.paid.2025.113382 · Cited by 7
The role of motivational orientations in formal and informal control
Korsgaard, M. A., Meglino, B. M., & Jeong, S. S. (2010) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511777899.009 · Cited by 4
Sanjuán, P., & de López, K. M. J. (2012) · Cross-cultural advancements in positive psychology · doi:10.1007/978-94-007-4611-4_12 · Cited by 4
Metadata
- Authors
- Heine, S. J., Lehman, D. R., Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S.
- Affiliations
- University of Pennsylvania (US)
- University of British Columbia (CA)
- Kyoto University (JP)
- Venue
- Psychological Review
- Published
- 1999-10
- Volume
- 106
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 766-794
- ISSN
- 0033-295X (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1471
- OpenAlex
- W2076124583
- Cited by
- 2,247
- References
- 249
- Citations by year
- 2026: 69 · 2025: 107 · 2024: 71 · 2023: 68 · 2022: 70 · 2021: 97 · 2020: 112 · 2019: 95 · 2018: 95 · 2017: 101 · 2016: 113 · 2015: 111 · 2014: 122 · 2013: 105 · 2012: 113
- FWCI
- 51.72
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Review (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Cultural Differences and Values
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
- Keywords
- self-esteem, self-criticism, cross-cultural generalizability, Japanese culture, self-construal, North American culture, self-view
- MeSH terms
- Cultural Characteristics, Humans, Japan, Motivation, North America, Self Concept
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