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Is there a universal need for positive self-regard?
Abstract
It is assumed that people seek positive self-regard; that is, they are motivated to possess, enhance, and maintain positive self-views. The cross-cultural generalizability of such motivations was addressed by examining Japanese culture. Anthropological, sociological, and psychological analyses revealed that many elements of Japanese culture are incongruent with such motivations. Moreover, the empirical literature provides scant evidence for a need for positive self-regard among Japanese and indicates that a self-critical focus is more characteristic of Japanese. It is argued that the need for self-regard must be culturally variant because the constructions of self and regard themselves differ across cultures. The need for positive self-regard, as it is currently conceptualized, is not a universal, but rather is rooted in significant aspects of North American culture. Conventional interpretations of positive self-regard are too narrow to encompass the Japanese experience.
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“These differences likely reflect Americans’ tendency to perceive the self in a more positive light than East Asians do (Heine, Lehman, Markus, & Kitayama, 1999), and that participants likely used their cultural group as a reference (Heine, Lehman, Peng, & Greenholtz, 2002).”
From Culture and Healthy Eating: The Role of Independence and Interdependence in the United States and Japan (2016) · cites this paper as Heine, Lehman, Markus, & Kitayama, 1999
In the citing paper
“norm-fulfillment may not affect self-esteem in Asia (Heine, Lehman, Markus, & Kitayama, 1999; but see Kobayashi & Brown, 2003;Kurman, 2003;Sedikides et al., 2005).”
From Cultural norm fulfillment, interpersonal belonging, or getting ahead? A large-scale cross-cultural test of three perspectives on the function of self-esteem. (2015) · cites this paper as Heine, Lehman, Markus, & Kitayama, 1999
In the citing paper
“It is universally adaptive to be viewed as good and worthy of high regard in one's culture”
From Implications of an Emerging Integration of Universal and Culturally Specific Psychologies (2006) · cites this paper as Heine et al., 1999
In the citing paper
“Members of collectivist cultures may thus be less motivated to protect self-integrity because their culture places less emphasis on esteeming the self (Heine et al., 1999).”
From The psychology of self-defense: Self-affirmation theory (2006) · cites this paper as Heine et al., 1999
In the citing paper
“In individualist cultures (such as the US), the self is a more bounded, autonomous entity, whereas in collectivist cultures (such as in East Asia), the self is more interconnected and tied to important relationships.”
From The psychology of self-defense: Self-affirmation theory (2006) · cites this paper as Heine et al., 1999
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“For example, research has found that Japanese are more self-critical than are North Americans [16].”
BackgroundInfluentialSaiki, T., Mukohara, K., Otani, T., et al. (2011) · Medical Teacher · doi:10.3109/0142159x.2011.536061 · Cited by 12
“In fact, Japanese score much lower on measures of self-esteem than North Americans (Heine et al. 1999).”
BackgroundFrom Self to Social Relationships: An Essentially Relational Perspective on Social Motivation
van Zomeren, M. (2016) · University of Groningen research database (University of Groningen / Centre for Information Technology) · Cited by 12
Assessment of Theory of Mind in Adults: Beyond False Belief Tasks
Karmakar, A., & Dogra, A. K. (2019) · Activitas Nervosa Superior · doi:10.1007/s41470-019-00028-1 · Cited by 17
Prioritised self-referential processing is modulated by emotional arousal
Qian, H., Wang, Z., Li, C., & Gao, X. (2019) · Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology · doi:10.1177/1747021819892158 · Cited by 12
Peng, C. (2021) · Research in Social Stratification and Mobility · doi:10.1016/j.rssm.2021.100645 · Cited by 11
The relationship between individual and culture
Breugelmans, S. M. (2011) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511974090.007 · Cited by 11
Chang, R., & Chang, E. C. (2008) · Cognitive Therapy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10608-008-9187-9 · Cited by 12
“Research has also shown that Westerners tend to engage in self-enhancement (Chang et al. 2001; Heine and Lehman 1995; Heine et al. 1999; Kitayama et al. 1997), and Easterners tend to engage in self-criticism (Heine et al. 2000, Kitayama et al. 1997).”
BackgroundWas he happy? Cultural difference in conceptions of Jesus
Oishi, S., Seol, K., Koo, M., & Miao, F. F. (2011) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2010.11.018 · Cited by 17
Üskül, A. K., & Kikutani, M. (2014) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2014.07.010 · Cited by 12
Individualism and collectivism
Boone, C., Meng, C., & van der Velden, R. (2007) · Higher education dynamics · doi:10.1007/978-1-4020-6044-1_10 · Cited by 12
“The importance of these in-groups, and their role as frame of reference, expresses itself in the Japanese culture by the term ‘Rashii’, meaning ‘similar to’ or ‘prototypical of’ ( Heine et al., 1999 ).”
BackgroundCross-Cultural Comparison of Adolescents' Online Self-Presentation Strategies
Boz, N., Uhls, Y. T., & Greenfield, P. M. (2016) · International Journal of Cyber Behavior Psychology and Learning · doi:10.4018/ijcbpl.2016070101 · Cited by 12
Metadata
- Authors
- Heine, S. J., Lehman, D. R., Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S.
- Affiliations
- University of Pennsylvania (US)
- University of British Columbia (CA)
- Kyoto University (JP)
- Venue
- Psychological Review
- Published
- 1999-10
- Volume
- 106
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 766-794
- ISSN
- 0033-295X (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1471
- OpenAlex
- W2076124583
- Cited by
- 2,247
- References
- 249
- Citations by year
- 2026: 69 · 2025: 107 · 2024: 71 · 2023: 68 · 2022: 70 · 2021: 97 · 2020: 112 · 2019: 95 · 2018: 95 · 2017: 101 · 2016: 113 · 2015: 111 · 2014: 122 · 2013: 105 · 2012: 113
- FWCI
- 51.72
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Review (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Cultural Differences and Values
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
- Keywords
- self-esteem, self-criticism, cross-cultural generalizability, Japanese culture, self-construal, North American culture, self-view
- MeSH terms
- Cultural Characteristics, Humans, Japan, Motivation, North America, Self Concept
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