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Is there a universal need for positive self-regard?
Abstract
It is assumed that people seek positive self-regard; that is, they are motivated to possess, enhance, and maintain positive self-views. The cross-cultural generalizability of such motivations was addressed by examining Japanese culture. Anthropological, sociological, and psychological analyses revealed that many elements of Japanese culture are incongruent with such motivations. Moreover, the empirical literature provides scant evidence for a need for positive self-regard among Japanese and indicates that a self-critical focus is more characteristic of Japanese. It is argued that the need for self-regard must be culturally variant because the constructions of self and regard themselves differ across cultures. The need for positive self-regard, as it is currently conceptualized, is not a universal, but rather is rooted in significant aspects of North American culture. Conventional interpretations of positive self-regard are too narrow to encompass the Japanese experience.
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“These differences likely reflect Americans’ tendency to perceive the self in a more positive light than East Asians do (Heine, Lehman, Markus, & Kitayama, 1999), and that participants likely used their cultural group as a reference (Heine, Lehman, Peng, & Greenholtz, 2002).”
From Culture and Healthy Eating: The Role of Independence and Interdependence in the United States and Japan (2016) · cites this paper as Heine, Lehman, Markus, & Kitayama, 1999
In the citing paper
“norm-fulfillment may not affect self-esteem in Asia (Heine, Lehman, Markus, & Kitayama, 1999; but see Kobayashi & Brown, 2003;Kurman, 2003;Sedikides et al., 2005).”
From Cultural norm fulfillment, interpersonal belonging, or getting ahead? A large-scale cross-cultural test of three perspectives on the function of self-esteem. (2015) · cites this paper as Heine, Lehman, Markus, & Kitayama, 1999
In the citing paper
“It is universally adaptive to be viewed as good and worthy of high regard in one's culture”
From Implications of an Emerging Integration of Universal and Culturally Specific Psychologies (2006) · cites this paper as Heine et al., 1999
In the citing paper
“Members of collectivist cultures may thus be less motivated to protect self-integrity because their culture places less emphasis on esteeming the self (Heine et al., 1999).”
From The psychology of self-defense: Self-affirmation theory (2006) · cites this paper as Heine et al., 1999
In the citing paper
“In individualist cultures (such as the US), the self is a more bounded, autonomous entity, whereas in collectivist cultures (such as in East Asia), the self is more interconnected and tied to important relationships.”
From The psychology of self-defense: Self-affirmation theory (2006) · cites this paper as Heine et al., 1999
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Pyszczynski, T., Solomon, S., & Greenberg, J. (2015) · Advances in Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/bs.aesp.2015.03.001 · Cited by 509
Hamamura, T. (2012) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1177/1088868311411587 · Cited by 497
“Research suggests that effort is valued more in collectivistic societies than in individualistic societies, as it is seen as a key for goals valued in these societies, such as self-improvement and social harmony (Heine et al., 1999).”
BackgroundSelf-esteem development from age 14 to 30 years: A longitudinal study.
Erol, R. Y., & Orth, U. (2011) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0024299 · Cited by 474
The Individual Within the Group: Balancing the Need to Belong With the Need to Be Different
Hornsey, M. J., & Jetten, J. (2004) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1207/s15327957pspr0803_2 · Cited by 488
Kitayama, S. (2002) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.128.1.89 · Cited by 465
“Over the last three decades, a number of pioneering studies in cross-cultural psychology, notably the ones by Hofstede (1980), S.”
BackgroundSelf-citationProactive work behavior: Forward-thinking and change-oriented action in organizations.
Bindl, U. K., & Parker, S. K. (2010) · American Psychological Association eBooks · doi:10.1037/12170-019 · Cited by 504
Body Image and Self‐Esteem Among Adolescent Girls: Testing the Influence of Sociocultural Factors
Clay, D., Vignoles, V. L., & Dittmar, H. (2005) · Journal of Research on Adolescence · doi:10.1111/j.1532-7795.2005.00107.x · Cited by 507
6 The Narcissistic Self: Background, an Extended Agency Model, and Ongoing Controversies
Campbell, W. K., & Foster, J. D. (2015) · Cited by 445
Development of self-esteem from age 4 to 94 years: A meta-analysis of longitudinal studies.
Orth, U., Erol, R. Y., & Luciano, E. C. (2018) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/bul0000161 · Cited by 438
From chump to champ: People's appraisals of their earlier and present selves.
Wilson, A. E., & Ross, M. (2001) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.80.4.572 · Cited by 590
The Dynamic Nature of Cultural Identity Throughout Cultural Transitions: Why Home Is Not So Sweet
Sussman, N. M. (2000) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1207/s15327957pspr0404_5 · Cited by 437
The meaningful life in Japan and the United States: Levels and correlates of meaning in life
Steger, M. F., Kawabata, Y., Shimai, S., & Otake, K. (2007) · Journal of Research in Personality · doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2007.09.003 · Cited by 467
“For example, compared to Asian-Americans, European-Americans appear more likely to focus on tasks they are good at (Heine et al., 1999; Oishi & Diener, 2003).”
BackgroundEntrepreneurial intention: antecedents to entrepreneurial behavior in the U.S.A. and Turkey
Özarallı, N., & Rivenburgh, N. K. (2016) · Journal of global entrepreneurship research · doi:10.1186/s40497-016-0047-x · Cited by 473
“Heine & Lehman (1995); Heine et al. (1999); Triandis (1995) and Chang et al. (2001) discuss that optimistic and pessimistic bias between Easterners and Westerners is due to the mapping of self-enhancement and self-criticism which arise from within individualistic and collectivist cultures,…”
BackgroundSocial value orientation and cooperation in social dilemmas: a review and conceptual model
Bogaert, S., Boone, C., & Declerck, C. (2008) · British Journal of Social Psychology · doi:10.1348/014466607x244970 · Cited by 412
Taylor, S. E., Welch, W. T., Kim, H. S., & Sherman, D. K. (2007) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01987.x · Cited by 423
“However, it is also important to note that many cultural differences, including differences in social-support seeking, become smaller as a function of gener-ational status, and disappear by the third generation (e.g., Heine, Lehman, Markus, & Kitayama, 1999; Taylor et al., 2004).”
BackgroundPersonality: The Universal and the Culturally Specific
Heine, S. J., & Buchtel, E. E. (2009) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.60.110707.163655 · Cited by 417
“A dialectical view of the self would lead to moderately positive views of the self rather than overwhelmingly positive self-views, which is precisely the way that East Asian self-enhancement scores differ from those of North Americans (Heine et al. 1999).”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationCultural Constructions of Happiness: Theory and Empirical Evidence
Uchida, Y., Norasakkunkit, V., & Kitayama, S. (2013) · Happiness studies book series · doi:10.1007/978-94-007-5702-8_14 · Cited by 403
Self-citationIllusory Control: A Generative Force Behind Power's Far-Reaching Effects
Fast, N. J., Gruenfeld, D. H., Sivanathan, N., & Galinsky, A. D. (2009) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2009.02311.x · Cited by 321
“These same people—the wealthy, the educated, the numerical majority, the individualistic—also tend to display more optimism, self-esteem, and action in pursuit of their goals (e.g., Heine et al., 1999; Mirowsky & Ross, 2000; Twenge & Campbell, 2002).”
Yuki, M., Maddux, W. W., & Masuda, T. (2006) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2006.02.004 · Cited by 382
“Cultural differences in using the eyes and mouth as cues to recognize emotions in Japan and the United States Masaki Yuki Hokkaido University William W. Maddux Northwestern University Takahiko Masuda University of Alberta In press in Journal of Experimental Social Psychology Author’s Note: Correspondence should be sen…”
BackgroundResultPancultural self-enhancement reloaded: A meta-analytic reply to Heine (2005).
Sedikides, C., Gaertner, L., & Vevea, J. L. (2005) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.89.4.539 · Cited by 390
“In an influential article, Heine, Lehman, Markus, and Kitayama (1999) drew a provocative conclusion: “The empirical literature provides scant evidence for a need for positive self-regard among Japanese and indicates that a self-critical focus is more characteristic of Japanese,” “the need for self-regard must be cultu…”
BackgroundSocial comparison, self-stereotyping, and gender differences in self-construals.
Guimond, S., Chatard, A., Martinot, D., Crisp, R. J., & Redersdorff, S. (2006) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-3514.90.2.221 · Cited by 381
Toward a New Generation of Cross-Cultural Research
Matsumoto, D., & Yoo, S. H. (2006) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1111/j.1745-6916.2006.00014.x · Cited by 379
Spencer‐Rodgers, J., Williams, M. J., & Peng, K. (2010) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1177/1088868310362982 · Cited by 392
“Moreover, paralleling the cultural tendency toward selfcriticism (Heine & Hamamura, 2007; Heine et al., 1999), these results suggest that in-group derogation reflects lay belief systems and cultural norms of modesty and humility rather than pathological self-hatred.”
BackgroundThe Construction of Emotion in Interactions, Relationships, and Cultures
Boiger, M., & Mesquita, B. (2012) · Emotion Review · doi:10.1177/1754073912439765 · Cited by 379
Eun, C. S., Wang, L., & Xiao, S. C. (2014) · Journal of Financial Economics · doi:10.1016/j.jfineco.2014.09.003 · Cited by 358
Meglino, B. M., & Korsgaard, M. A. (2004) · Journal of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1037/0021-9010.89.6.946 · Cited by 377
Metadata
- Authors
- Heine, S. J., Lehman, D. R., Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S.
- Affiliations
- University of Pennsylvania (US)
- University of British Columbia (CA)
- Kyoto University (JP)
- Venue
- Psychological Review
- Published
- 1999-10
- Volume
- 106
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 766-794
- ISSN
- 0033-295X (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1471
- OpenAlex
- W2076124583
- Cited by
- 2,247
- References
- 249
- Citations by year
- 2026: 69 · 2025: 107 · 2024: 71 · 2023: 68 · 2022: 70 · 2021: 97 · 2020: 112 · 2019: 95 · 2018: 95 · 2017: 101 · 2016: 113 · 2015: 111 · 2014: 122 · 2013: 105 · 2012: 113
- FWCI
- 51.72
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Review (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Cultural Differences and Values
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Personality Traits and Psychology
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
- Keywords
- self-esteem, self-criticism, cross-cultural generalizability, Japanese culture, self-construal, North American culture, self-view
- MeSH terms
- Cultural Characteristics, Humans, Japan, Motivation, North America, Self Concept
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