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Effects of color on emotions.
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“Moreover, bright and saturated colors are more stimulating and pleasurable than grayscales (e.g., Guilford & Smith, 1959; Valdez & Mehrabian, 1994; Wright & Rainwater, 1962).”
From Is life brighter when your phone is not? The efficacy of a grayscale smartphone intervention addressing digital well-being (2024) · cites this paper as Valdez & Mehrabian, 1994
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Research Article Learning in Color: How Color and Affect Influence Learning Outcomes
Kumi, R., Conway, C. M., Limayem, M., & Goyal, S. (2013) · IEEE Transactions on Professional Communication · doi:10.1109/tpc.2012.2208390 · Cited by 42
“One stream focuses on understanding color preferences and the emotional effects of color, the other focuses on investigating how color influences behavior [17].”
BackgroundCamera eats first: exploring food aesthetics portrayed on social media using deep learning
Gambetti, A., & Han, Q. (2022) · International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management · doi:10.1108/ijchm-09-2021-1206 · Cited by 60
Opposites attract: Impact of background color on effectiveness of emotional charity appeals
Choi, J., Li, Y. J., Rangan, P., Yin, B. M., & Singh, S. N. (2020) · International Journal of Research in Marketing · doi:10.1016/j.ijresmar.2020.02.001 · Cited by 51
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“As mentioned, experimental studies demonstrate that long-wavelength colors, red and yellow, are more arousing than short-wavelength colors, blue and green (Valdez and Mehrabian, 1994).”
BackgroundArousal expectations and service evaluations
Mattila, A. S., & Wirtz, J. (2006) · International Journal of Service Industry Management · doi:10.1108/09564230610667087 · Cited by 51
The evolution of pace in popular movies
Cutting, J. E. (2016) · Cognitive Research Principles and Implications · doi:10.1186/s41235-016-0029-0 · Cited by 61
“It has been shown that people have positive associations to brightness and negative associations to darkness (Valdez & Mehrabian, 1994).”
BackgroundHierarchical affective content analysis in arousal and valence dimensions
Xu, M. G., Xu, C., He, X., Jin, J. S., Luo, S., & Rui, Y. (2012) · Signal Processing · doi:10.1016/j.sigpro.2012.06.026 · Cited by 50
“According to [23,34], especially [16], the distribution of pre-defined emotion types in AV space can be roughly visualized in Fig.”
BackgroundLin, I. Y. (2010) · Journal of Services Marketing · doi:10.1108/08876041011053006 · Cited by 50
Sartori, A., Culibrk, D. R., Yan, Y., & Sebe, N. (2015) · ACM International Conference on Multimedia (ACM MM) · doi:10.1145/2733373.2806250 · Cited by 49
“A psychological study on the effects of colors on emotions based on Pleasure, Arousal and Dominance model concludes that brighter colors are more pleasant, less arousing, and induce less dominance than the darker colors [19].”
BackgroundCage colour preferences and effects of home cage colour on anxiety in laboratory mice
Sherwin, C. M., & Glen, E. (2003) · Animal Behaviour · doi:10.1006/anbe.2003.2286 · Cited by 49
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“A large body of literature showed that colours are associated with affective states, or emotions more specifically [1 – 3,6 , 14, 16 – 27].”
BackgroundResultInfluentialBlue or red? The effects of colour on the emotions of Chinese people
Wang, T., Shu, S., & Mo, L. (2014) · Asian Journal Of Social Psychology · doi:10.1111/ajsp.12050 · Cited by 48
EmoPlayer: A media player for video clips with affective annotations
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Colored backgrounds affect the attractiveness of fresh produce, but not it’s perceived color
Schifferstein, H. N. J., Howell, B. F., & Pont, S. C. (2016) · Food Quality and Preference · doi:10.1016/j.foodqual.2016.10.011 · Cited by 53
“Furthermore, colors may also bring their own hedonic evaluations (Madden et al., 2000; Valdez & Mehrabian, 1994; Whitfield & Wiltshire, 1990), even though color preferences highly depend on the context in which they are perceived (e.g., the size and the type of object that carries the color; Holmes…”
BackgroundThe contrasting influences of incidental anger and fear on responses to a service failure
Su, L., Wan, L. C., & Wyer, R. S. (2018) · Psychology and Marketing · doi:10.1002/mar.21114 · Cited by 48
Investigation of color‐emotion associations of the university students
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Hybrid-Deep Learning Model for Emotion Recognition Using Facial Expressions
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Faved! Biometrics: Tell Me Which Image You Like and I'll Tell You Who You Are
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“Emotion-based 3 Amount of Pleasure, Arousal, Dominance [35], [39]”
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Color consilience: color through the lens of art practice, history, philosophy, and neuroscience
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Engaging consumers in mobile instant messaging: the role of cute branded emoticons
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“44 Visual features.”
The psychology of colour preferences
Crozier, W. R. (1996) · Review of Progress in Coloration and Related Topics · doi:10.1111/j.1478-4408.1996.tb00111.x · Cited by 46
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“” Color's impact on valence is plausible because even non-risk color evokes emotions (Valdez & Mehrabian, 1994 ).”
Food packaging and the color red: How negative cognitive associations influence feelings of guilt
Lunardo, R., Saintives, C., & Chaney, D. (2021) · Journal of Business Research · doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2021.05.052 · Cited by 53
Determination of emotional content of video clips by low-level audiovisual features
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“The use of HSL is justified by the psychological evidence of the human perception of emotion in this color space, as shown by Valdez and Mehrabian [42].”
MethodLiu, N., Dellandréa, E., Chen, L., Zhu, C., Zhang, Y., Bichot, C., Bres, S., & Tellez, B. (2012) · Computer Vision and Image Understanding · doi:10.1016/j.cviu.2012.10.009 · Cited by 45
“Valdez and Mehrabian [21] carried out psychological experiments and evidenced significant relationships between color saturation and brightness, and emotion dimensions.”
InfluentialNeale, C., Griffiths, A., Chalmin‐Pui, L. S., Mendu, S., Boukhechba, M., & Roe, J. J. (2021) · Wellbeing Space and Society · doi:10.1016/j.wss.2021.100038 · Cited by 46
Designing sensory museum experiences for visitors’ emotional responses
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“Previous research of visual stimuli focused on colour (e.g., Gao et al. 2007; Hyman 2006; Valdez and Mehrabian 1994) form, complexity, symmetry, laterality and movement, prototypicality, novelty (Lindell and Mueller 2011), contrast, peak shift,2 perceptual grouping of objects (Ramachandran and…”
BackgroundGuo, R., & Li, H. (2022) · Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing · doi:10.1080/10548408.2022.2044970 · Cited by 51
“In psychology, color has been shown to influence people’s cognitive systems, emotional reactions, and ultimately behavioral responses (Elliot & Maier, 2014; Valdez & Mehrabian, 1994).”
BackgroundYüksel, A. (2009) · Journal of Quality Assurance in Hospitality & Tourism · doi:10.1080/15280080903183383 · Cited by 43
Eco-labeled Products: Trend or Tools for Sustainability Strategies?
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“Also, the colors may generate specific emotional reactions (Valdez and Mehrabian 1994).”
BackgroundShape congruence in product design: Impacts on automatically activated attitudes
Pleyers, G. (2019) · Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services · doi:10.1016/j.jretconser.2019.101935 · Cited by 43
The effect of visual stimuli on the horribleness of awful sounds
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A systematic literature review of store atmosphere in alternative retail commerce channels
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Pazda, A. D., Elliot, A. J., & Greitemeyer, T. (2013) · Color Research & Application · doi:10.1002/col.21804 · Cited by 45
Cognitive performance and emotion are indifferent to ambient color
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“negative) is also influenced by all of the three color dimensions.(37,38) The results by Kwallek et al.”
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Design of a Social Mobile Robot Using Emotion-Based Decision Mechanisms
Hollinger, G. A., Georgiev, Y., Manfredi, A., Maxwell, B., Pezzementi, Z. A., & Mitchell, B. (2006) · 2006 IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems · doi:10.1109/iros.2006.282327 · Cited by 40
Creation of 3D printed fashion prototype with multi-coloured texture: a practice-based approach
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Attention Drives Emotion: Voluntary Visual Attention Increases Perceived Emotional Intensity
Mrkva, K., Westfall, J., & Leaf Van Boven, A. (2019) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0956797619844231 · Cited by 45
“If attention increases perceived distinctiveness, it might also increase perceived emotional intensity because distinctiveness intensifies emotion (Valdez & Mehrabian, 1994).”
BackgroundDeveloping and Testing a Theoretical Path Model of Web Page Impression Formation and Its Consequence
Ye, X., Peng, X., Wang, X., & Teo, H. (2020) · Information Systems Research · doi:10.1287/isre.2020.0924 · Cited by 41
The massage in the medium: Transfer of connotative meaning from typeface to names and products
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VELDA: Relating an Image Tweet’s Text and Images
Chen, T., SalahEldeen, H. M., He, X., Kan, M., & Lü, D. (2015) · Proceedings of the AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.1609/aaai.v29i1.9168 · Cited by 41
“Color-based features have proved to be simple yet effective (Valdez and Mehrabian 1994; Colombo, Del Bimbo, and Pala 1999; Machajdik and Hanbury 2010; Jia et al. 2012; Yang et al. 2013).”
BackgroundTrue colors: Grayscale setting reduces screen time in college students
Holte, A. J., & Ferraro, F. R. (2023) · The Social Science Journal · doi:10.1080/03623319.2020.1737461 · Cited by 38
Califano, G., Furno, M., & Caracciolo, F. (2022) · Appetite · doi:10.1016/j.appet.2022.106434 · Cited by 41
Children’s colour use to portray themselves and others with happy, sad and mixed emotion
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“…is relates to the point that the colours or hues used for the single emotion tasks to convey happiness or sadness were low wavelength colours such as yellow and black, whereas the red and blue used in drawings of mixed emotions are colours with complex wavelengths (Valdez & Mehrabian, 1994).”
BackgroundImpulse behavior in economic crisis: a data driven market segmentation
Boutsouki, C. (2019) · International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management · doi:10.1108/ijrdm-08-2018-0165 · Cited by 40
Emotional Understanding and Color-Emotion Associations in Children Aged 7-8 Years
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“between color and emotion [37].”
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Influence of ambient lighting in a vehicle interior on the driver’s perceptions
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Effect of brightness of visual stimuli on EEG signals
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Attention-Aware Polarity Sensitive Embedding for Affective Image Retrieval
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“Recently, affective image analysis that studies the emotional response of humans on visual stimuli has drawn attention from both psychologists [38, 49, 32] and computer vision researchers [30, 63] due to its wide applicability, e.”
BackgroundAffective Visualization in Virtual Reality: An Integrative Review
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Young Children’s Color Preferences in the Interior Environment
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The Importance of the Service and Shopping Customer Experience in a Retail Environment
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“Vargo and Lusch (2008) adopt the process-based approach as the foundational premise of S-D logic and service experience.”
BackgroundMethodSaying It with Light: A Pilot Study of Affective Communication Using the MIRO Robot
Collins, E. C., Prescott, T. J., & Mitchinson, B. (2015) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-22979-9_25 · Cited by 38
“There is a considerable literature reviewing the effect of colour on physiology, behaviour, and emotion, and individual and cultural differences in colour responses; some population relationships are present, but a clear picture has not emerged [33,34].”
BackgroundTigwell, G. W., Flatla, D. R., & Archibald, N. D. (2017) · ACM Transactions on Accessible Computing · doi:10.1145/3014588 · Cited by 38
“Colour plays a substantial role in how we feel, act, and respond to our surroundings [Valdez and Mehrabian 1994].”
BackgroundDigital Strategies for Screen Time Reduction: A Randomized Field Experiment
Zimmermann, L., & Sobolev, M. (2023) · Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking · doi:10.1089/cyber.2022.0027 · Cited by 37
An Arousal Effect of Colors Saturation
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Arousal Recognition Using Audio-Visual Features and FMRI-Based Brain Response
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“The details of these features are described as follows.”
BackgroundChromatic interior environments for the elderly: A literature review
Delcampo‐Carda, A., Torres‐Barchino, A., & Serra‐Lluch, J. (2019) · Color Research and Application · doi:10.1002/col.22358 · Cited by 32
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“Colors are often associated with emotions [90] and our choice of colors is based on existing work on colors and arousal: bright red containing more energy represents high”
BackgroundAffective Congruence in Visualization Design: Influences on Reading Categorical Maps
Anderson, C. L., & Robinson, A. C. (2021) · IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics · doi:10.1109/tvcg.2021.3050118 · Cited by 37
“Links between color and emotion are widely noted in psychology; for example, colors with differing saturation and lightness levels reliably elicit different emotional responses [27], [28].”
BackgroundPolice uniform color and citizen impression formation
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“These works have been influenced by empirical studies in the context of psychology, art and image aesthetics [4, 10, 21, 40].”
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Understanding colour perception and preference
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“Another considered empathic behavior is eye-color changing; although eye-color changing is not human behavior, colors can affect our emotions [82].”
BackgroundEnglish colour terms carry gender and valence biases: A corpus study using word embeddings
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The influence of red on impression formation in a job application context
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Sentiment Analysis on Microblogging by Integrating Text and Image Features
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“Itten [4] and Valdez [30] investigated emotional impact of color and color combinations from different views.”
BackgroundMethodThomson, D. M. H. (2016) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-08-100508-8.00010-2 · Cited by 35
3D model-based continuous emotion recognition
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“The PAD emotion space [33] is a typical one, which describes continuous emotions in three dimensions of Pleasure, Arousal and Dominance.”
BackgroundContent-Based Prediction of Movie Style, Aesthetics, and Affect: Data Set and Baseline Experiments
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“For example, valence has been shown to increase with image brightness and saturation [20] and with music tempo [21], and also to be affected in various ways by the rhythm and pitch of human speech [22].”
BackgroundInfluentialColour-emotion associations in individuals with red-green colour blindness
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Finnish and English children's color use to depict affectively characterized figures
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“Moreover, bright and saturated colors are more stimulating and pleasurable than grays-cales (e.g., Guilford & Smith, 1959; Valdez & Mehrabian, 1994; Wright & Rainwater, 1962).”
The Halo Effect of Product Color Lightness on Hedonic Food Consumption
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Computational Understanding of Visual Interestingness Beyond Semantics
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“Interestingness and Arousal —Gygli et al. (2013) used arousal among several other features to predict visual interestingness, where the evoked arousal from an image is computed by using pixel brightness and saturation (Valdez and Mehrabian 1994), i.e., Arousal = (cid:2) p 0 .”
BackgroundOn the Influence of Shot Scale on Film Mood and Narrative Engagement in Film Viewers
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Brain response to color stimuli: an EEG study with nonlinear approach
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Red, Purple and Pink: The Colors of Diffusion on Pinterest
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“More deeply saturated colors can be more exciting and cause surprising behavior [41, 42].”
BackgroundMethodA multimodal mixture-of-experts model for dynamic emotion prediction in movies
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“3d Hue Saturation Value (HSV) Histogram: Color has a significant influence on the human affective system [22, 23].”
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Color Enhanced Cross Correlation Net for Image Sentiment Analysis
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Effets de la couleur des sites web marchands sur la mémorisation et sur l'intention d'achat
Pelet, J. (2010) · Systèmes d information & management · doi:10.3917/sim.101.0097 · Cited by 32
Impact of Animal-Like Features on Emotion Expression of Robot Head EDDIE
Kühnlenz, K., Sosnowski, S., & BUSS, M. J. (2010) · Advanced Robotics · doi:10.1163/016918610x501309 · Cited by 32
Metadata
- Authors
- Valdez, P., & Mehrabian, A.
- Venue
- Journal of Experimental Psychology: General
- Published
- 1994
- Volume
- 123
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 394-409
- ISSN
- 0096-3445 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-2222
- OpenAlex
- W4319308497
- Cited by
- 1,104
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 94 · 2025: 82 · 2024: 66 · 2023: 59 · 2022: 68 · 2021: 83 · 2020: 80 · 2019: 61 · 2018: 61 · 2017: 59 · 2016: 53 · 2015: 56 · 2014: 30 · 2013: 43 · 2012: 33
- FWCI
- 4.59
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Experimental Psychology General (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Color perception and design
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Aesthetic Perception and Analysis
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Atomic and Molecular Physics, and Optics › Color Science and Applications
- Keywords
- color, emotions, color psychology
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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