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Effects of color on emotions.
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“Moreover, bright and saturated colors are more stimulating and pleasurable than grayscales (e.g., Guilford & Smith, 1959; Valdez & Mehrabian, 1994; Wright & Rainwater, 1962).”
From Is life brighter when your phone is not? The efficacy of a grayscale smartphone intervention addressing digital well-being (2024) · cites this paper as Valdez & Mehrabian, 1994
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“Also in light of these issues, we have refrained from reviewing the details of this literature herein, referring the reader instead to reviews by Whitfield & Wiltshire (1990), Valdez & Mehrabian (1994), and Elliot & Maier (2012).”
BackgroundMethodAffective image classification using features inspired by psychology and art theory
Machajdik, J., & Hanbury, A. (2010) · ACM International Conference on Multimedia (ACM MM) · doi:10.1145/1873951.1873965 · Cited by 873
“Hence in addition to the mean and standard deviation of the Saturation and Brightness channels, the direct relationships to pleasure, arousal and dominance are computed according to the formulae determined by Valdez and Mehrabian from their psychological experiments [ 26 ].”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialExciting red and competent blue: the importance of color in marketing
Labrecque, L. I., & Milne, G. R. (2011) · Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science · doi:10.1007/s11747-010-0245-y · Cited by 740
“Many studies link both value and saturation to arousal, indicating that saturation has a positive effect on arousal (Valdez and Mehrabian 1994) and value has a negative relationship with arousal (Gorn et al. 1997; Valdez and Mehrabian 1994).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialMcKeown, G., Valstar, M., Cowie, R., Pantic, M., & Schroder, M. (2012) · IEEE Transactions on Affective Computing · doi:10.1109/t-affc.2011.20 · Cited by 665
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“Previous studies demonstrated the existence of universal trends in the attribution of affect to colors [19, 20].”
BackgroundA Review of the Benefits of Nature Experiences: More Than Meets the Eye
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BackgroundMusic–color associations are mediated by emotion
Palmer, S. E., Schloss, K. B., Xu, Z., & Prado-León, L. R. (2013) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1212562110 · Cited by 434
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“For the chromatic stimuli, compatible with data by Valdez and Mehrabian (1994), Suk and Irtel (2010) and Oberfeld et al. (2009), there was a trend towards an effect of hue on the valence ratings.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialThe Marketers’ Prismatic Palette: A Review of Color Research and Future Directions
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“On the other end of the spectrum, a general conceptualization such as color-in-context theory (Elliot and Maier, 2012) is valuable in that it offers several widely applicable premises; however, these premises are only vaguely suggestive of precise hypotheses in specific contexts.”
BackgroundScaffoldings of the affective mind
Colombetti, G., & Krueger, J. W. (2014) · Philosophical Psychology · doi:10.1080/09515089.2014.976334 · Cited by 364
“There is indeed evidence that color affects mood (Valdez & Mehrabian, 1994), and the tactile qualities of furry sweaters may contribute to releasing chemicals known to lower stress levels.”
BackgroundBuilding a Large Scale Dataset for Image Emotion Recognition: The Fine Print and The Benchmark
You, Q., Luo, J., Jin, H., & Yang, J. (2016) · Proceedings of the AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence · doi:10.1609/aaai.v30i1.9987 · Cited by 382
“For example, based on art theory (Itten and Van Haagen 1973; Valdez and Mehrabian 1994), Machajdik and Hanbury (Machajdik and Hanbury 2010) defined eight different kinds of pixel level features (e.g. color, texture and composition), which have been empirically proved to be related to emotional…”
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“For humans however, it is more informative to use the colour image [8].”
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“…has been shown to affect emotions and behavior in a wide variety of contexts (e.g., Elliot, Maier, Binser, Friedman, & Pekrun, 2009; Kaya & Epps, 2004; Valdez & Mehrabian, 1994; Weller & Livingston, 1988), (c) colors – in contrast to many other design features – can be completely characterized in…”
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“Warm hues (such as red and yellow) elicit higher levels of excitement (Gorn et al. 2004; Valdez and Mehrabian 1994), while cool hues (such as blue and green) elicit higher levels of relaxation.”
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“This is important, because it makes prior research difficult to interpret due to inevitable confounds between the three colour properties (see Valdez and Mehrabian 1994; Whitfield and Wiltshire 1990).”
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“–Sam Kiwan and Leal Butler (2013) Brightness affects mood and modulates emotion in the real world (Valdez & Mehrabian, 1994) and in movies (Chong, 2013; Tarvainen, Westman, & Oittinen, 2015).”
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“Prior research has indicated that color elements such as hue, brightness, and saturation have the potential to affect users’ perception of the expressiveness of objects, and consequently affect their emotions and behavior [9, 13, 35, 72].”
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“Furthermore, self-reported affective states in everyday life and in response to hypothetical scenarios, affective pictures, and colors can be organized along a valence dimension (e.g., Russell and Mehrabian, 1977; Russell and Steiger, 1982; Bradley and Lang, 1994; Valdez and Mehrabian, 1994; Feldman, 1995; Barrett, 19…”
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“A second pre-test was performed to check whether an increase in the colour saturation of the stimuli induces arousal (Valdez & Mehrabian, 1994).”
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“Emotion-based: Saturation and Brightness can elicit emotions according to the following equations resulting from psychological studies (Valence, Arousal and Dominance are dimensions commonly adopted to represent emotions) [43]:”
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“[16] mentions that the effect of brightness - in contrast to”
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“There is a body of literature in psychology for the last century that has studied colour reactions as functions of personality and its effects on emotions and behaviour (Valdez and Mehrabian, 1994).”
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“Specifically, people tend to evaluate brighter colours more positively than darker colours (Guilford, 1934; Valdez & Mehrabian, 1994).”
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“Valdez and Mehrabian [43] tested the direct effect of color itself on emotion using the Pleasure-Arousal-Dominance emotional model.”
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“Work in color research suggests that people notice colors before shape or text within their peripheral field of view and tend to associate colors with certain emotions [56].”
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“Especially blue light is shown in related work to have a calming effect [50,51].”
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Metadata
- Authors
- Valdez, P., & Mehrabian, A.
- Venue
- Journal of Experimental Psychology: General
- Published
- 1994
- Volume
- 123
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 394-409
- ISSN
- 0096-3445 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-2222
- OpenAlex
- W4319308497
- Cited by
- 1,104
- References
- 0
- Citations by year
- 2026: 94 · 2025: 82 · 2024: 66 · 2023: 59 · 2022: 68 · 2021: 83 · 2020: 80 · 2019: 61 · 2018: 61 · 2017: 59 · 2016: 53 · 2015: 56 · 2014: 30 · 2013: 43 · 2012: 33
- FWCI
- 4.59
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Experimental Psychology General (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Color perception and design
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Aesthetic Perception and Analysis
- Physical Sciences › Physics and Astronomy › Atomic and Molecular Physics, and Optics › Color Science and Applications
- Keywords
- color, emotions, color psychology
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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