Cited by 848Decision-Making and Behavioral EconomicsClinical Reasoning and Diagnostic SkillsCognitive Science and Education Research

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Overcoming intuition: Metacognitive difficulty activates analytic reasoning.

Alter, Adam L., Oppenheimer, Daniel M., Epley, Nicholas, Eyre, Rebecca N.·2007·Journal of Experimental Psychology: General

DOI 10.1037/0096-3445.136.4.569

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Abstract

Humans appear to reason using two processing styles: System 1 processes that are quick, intuitive, and effortless and System 2 processes that are slow, analytical, and deliberate that occasionally correct the output of System 1. Four experiments suggest that System 2 processes are activated by metacognitive experiences of difficulty or disfluency during the process of reasoning. Incidental experiences of difficulty or disfluency--receiving information in a degraded font (Experiments 1 and 4), in difficult-to-read lettering (Experiment 2), or while furrowing one's brow (Experiment 3)--reduced the impact of heuristics and defaults in judgment (Experiments 1 and 3), reduced reliance on peripheral cues in persuasion (Experiment 2), and improved syllogistic reasoning (Experiment 4). Metacognitive experiences of difficulty or disfluency appear to serve as an alarm that activates analytic forms of reasoning that assess and sometimes correct the output of more intuitive forms of reasoning.

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Authors: Alter, A. L., Oppenheimer, D. M., Epley, N., & Eyre, R. N.
Affiliations: Princeton University (US)
Harvard University (US)
ORCID: Alter, Adam L.
Oppenheimer, Daniel M.
Venue: Journal of Experimental Psychology: General
Publisher: American Psychological Association (APA)
Published: 2007
Volume: 136
Issue: 4
Pages: 569-576
ISSN: 0096-3445 (ISSN-L)
1939-2222
DOI: 10.1037/0096-3445.136.4.569
OpenAlex: W2138921773
Cited by: 844
References: 46
Citations by year: 2026: 43 · 2025: 32 · 2024: 41 · 2023: 54 · 2022: 50 · 2021: 54 · 2020: 46 · 2019: 45 · 2018: 55 · 2017: 47 · 2016: 63 · 2015: 62 · 2014: 51 · 2013: 58 · 2012: 40
FWCI: 17.22
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Locations: Journal of Experimental Psychology General (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders: National Science Foundation (051811; SES0241544)
Topics: Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › General Decision Sciences › Decision-Making and Behavioral Economics
Health Sciences › Medicine › Family Practice › Clinical Reasoning and Diagnostic Skills
Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Cognitive Science and Education Research
Keywords: metacognition, analytical thinking, intuitive thinking, heuristics, syllogistic reasoning, persuasion, peripheral cues, cognitive effort, dual-process theory
MeSH terms: Cognition, Decision Making, Humans, Judgment, Pilot Projects, Intuition

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Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

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What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

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Overcoming intuition: Metacognitive difficulty activates analytic reasoning.

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