Sources of the continued influence effect: when misinformation in memory affects later inferences
Abstract
Several lines of research have found that information previously encoded into memory can influence inferences and judgments, even when more recent information discredits it. Previous theories have attributed this to difficulties in editing memory—failing to successfully trace out and alter inferences or explanations generated before a correction. However, in Experiments 1A and IB, Ss who had received an immediate correction made as many inferences based on misinformation as Ss who had received the correction later in the account (and presumably had made more inferences requiring editing.) In a 2nd experiment, the availability (Tversky & Kahneman, 1973) of the misinformation within the comprehension context was tested. The results showed that Ss continued to make inferences involving discredited information when it afforded causal structure, but not when only incidentally mentioned or primed during an intervening task. Experiments 3A and 3B found that providing a plausible causal alternative, rather than simply negating misinformation, mitigated the effect. The findings suggest that misinformation can still influence inferences one generates after a correction has occurred; however, providing an alternative that replaces the causal structure it affords can reduce the effects of misinformation.
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There are many cases where two cognitive states with opposite content do not lead to any negative affect.
“More generally, there are many cases where two cognitive states with opposite content do not lead to any negative affect—a topic widely discussed both in philosophy and in psychology.”
From Conative Dissonance (2026) · cites this paper as Johnson and Seifert 1994
Continued reliance on discredited information is very difficult to correct.
“Classical laboratory research on memory for inferences [10, 6] demonstrates that the continued reliance on discredited information is very difficult to correct.”
From Misinformation lingers in memory: Failure of three pro-vaccination strategies (2017) · cites this paper as [6]
People can still be influenced by retracted misinformation even when they clearly remember and understand a subsequent correction.
“Even when people clearly remember and understand a subsequent correction when asked about it immediately (suggesting that they have encoded it and can retrieve and potentially comply with it), they can still be influenced by the effect of the retracted misinformation.”
From Misinformation lingers in memory: Failure of three pro-vaccination strategies (2017) · cites this paper as [6]
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“…both the literature on dual attitudes (Wilson, Lindsey, & Schooler, 2000) and the literature on “continued influence effect” paradigms (see, e.g., Johnson and Seifert 1994; Shtulman & Valcarcel, 2012) show the same: we can function very well with contradicting beliefs, very much including…”
- Authors
- Johnson, H. M., & Seifert, C. M.
- Affiliations
- University of Michigan (US)
- ORCID
- Seifert, Colleen M.
- Venue
- Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition
- Published
- 1994-11
- Volume
- 20
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 1420-1436
- ISSN
- 0278-7393 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1285
- OpenAlex
- W2012975501
- Cited by
- 560
- References
- 43
- Citations by year
- 2026: 24 · 2025: 45 · 2024: 53 · 2023: 58 · 2022: 56 · 2021: 52 · 2020: 59 · 2019: 35 · 2018: 31 · 2017: 24 · 2016: 6 · 2015: 23 · 2014: 7 · 2013: 11 · 2012: 11
- FWCI
- 1.06
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition (publishedVersion)
- Topics
- Life Sciences › Neuroscience › Cognitive Neuroscience › Memory Processes and Influences
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Misinformation and Its Impacts
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Deception detection and forensic psychology
- Keywords
- continued influence effect, misinformation, memory editing, causal structure, availability heuristic, priming
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