The bystander-effect: A meta-analytic review on bystander intervention in dangerous and non-dangerous emergencies.
Abstract
Research on bystander intervention has produced a great number of studies showing that the presence of other people in a critical situation reduces the likelihood that an individual will help. As the last systematic review of bystander research was published in 1981 and was not a quantitative meta-analysis in the modern sense, the present meta-analysis updates the knowledge about the bystander effect and its potential moderators. The present work (a) integrates the bystander literature from the 1960s to 2010, (b) provides statistical tests of potential moderators, and (c) presents new theoretical and empirical perspectives on the novel finding of non-negative bystander effects in certain dangerous emergencies as well as situations where bystanders are a source of physical support for the potentially intervening individual. In a fixed effects model, data from over 7,700 participants and 105 independent effect sizes revealed an overall effect size of g = -0.35. The bystander effect was attenuated when situations were perceived as dangerous (compared with non-dangerous), perpetrators were present (compared with non-present), and the costs of intervention were physical (compared with non-physical). This pattern of findings is consistent with the arousal-cost-reward model, which proposes that dangerous emergencies are recognized faster and more clearly as real emergencies, thereby inducing higher levels of arousal and hence more helping. We also identified situations where bystanders provide welcome physical support for the potentially intervening individual and thus reduce the bystander effect, such as when the bystanders were exclusively male, when they were naive rather than passive confederates or only virtually present persons, and when the bystanders were not strangers.
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“The bystander effect is an extensively researched phenomenon (for a review, see Fischer et al., 2011) that posits that individuals are less likely to exhibit prosocial behavior during an emergency situation if other bystanders are present than if they are not.”
BackgroundBystander Responses to a Violent Incident in an Immersive Virtual Environment
Slater, M., Rovira, A., Southern, R. W., Swapp, D., Zhang, J., Campbell, C., & Levine, M. (2013) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0052766 · Cited by 179 · see citing works
“A recent meta-analysis by Fisher and colleagues [4] confirms that intervention behaviour in violent emergencies does not fit the traditional bystander effect explanation.”
BackgroundThe Emerging Science of Virtue
Fowers, B. J., Carroll, J. S., Leonhardt, N. D., & Cokelet, B. (2020) · Perspectives on Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/1745691620924473 · Cited by 177 · see citing works
“Contemporary trait theorists have recognized the necessity of multiple assessments of the candidate trait over time to document consistency (Fleeson, 2001; Jayawickreme et al., 2014). Therefore, Hypothesis 5 is that individuals will evidence substantial consistency over time in virtue traits. A second weakness of glob…”
BackgroundInfluentialCooperation, Trust, and Antagonism
Parks, C. D., Joireman, J. A., & Lange, P. A. M. V. (2013) · Gothic.net · doi:10.1177/1529100612474436 · Cited by 167 · see citing works
“As noted by Gaertner and Dovidio (2012), it is often possible to make salient a common membership to enhance intergroup relationships—reducing stereotyping, promoting trust, and so on.”
BackgroundObermaier, M., Fawzi, N., & Koch, T. (2014) · New Media & Society · doi:10.1177/1461444814563519 · Cited by 171 · see citing works
“The current work showed no classic bystander effect in cyberbullying, meaning that neither participants’ feeling of responsibility nor their intention to intervene linearly decreased with an increasing number of bystanders (Fischer et al., 2011; Latané and Darley, 1970).”
BackgroundInfluentialSasson, C., Haukoos, J. S., Bond, C., Rabe, M., Colbert, S. H., King, R., Sayre, M. R., & Heisler, M. (2013) · Circulation Cardiovascular Quality and Outcomes · doi:10.1161/circoutcomes.111.000097 · Cited by 161 · see citing works
“Previous research has focused on why people do not do CPR, such as fear of doing it incorrectly,(27,38) breathing into someone’s mouth,(20,39) or litigation concerns.(40,41) Our focus group participants identified barriers that are more upstream to even performing CPR, the reasons why people living in high-risk neighb…”
Bullying participant roles and gender as predictors of bystander intervention
Jenkins, L. N., & Nickerson, A. B. (2016) · Aggressive Behavior · doi:10.1002/ab.21688 · Cited by 153 · see citing works
“A meta-analysis found that the bystander effect was less likely to occur in more dangerous situations where men are present, suggesting that people are more likely to intervene when they believe bystanders with higher physical strength may be available to help (Fischer et al., 2011).”
BackgroundThe Effectiveness of Social Norms in Fighting Fake News on Social Media
Gimpel, H., Heger, S., Olenberger, C., & Utz, L. (2021) · Journal of Management Information Systems · doi:10.1080/07421222.2021.1870389 · Cited by 156 · see citing works
“This effect applies not only in the case of physical presence [50, 74] but also in an online environment [30].”
BackgroundBrooks, S. C., Clegg, G. R., Bray, J., Deakin, C. D., Perkins, G. D., Ringh, M., Smith, C. M., Link, M. S., Merchant, R. M., Pezo-Morales, J., et al. (2022) · Circulation · doi:10.1161/cir.0000000000001013 · Cited by 156 · see citing works
Together We Rise: How Social Movements Succeed
Nardini, G., Rank‐Christman, T., Bublitz, M. G., Cross, S. N. N., & Peracchio, L. A. (2020) · Journal of Consumer Psychology · doi:10.1002/jcpy.1201 · Cited by 152 · see citing works
Sasson, C., Meischke, H. W., Abella, B. S., Berg, R. A., Bobrow, B. J., Chan, P. S., Root, E. D., Heisler, M., Levy, J. H., Link, M. S., et al. (2013) · Circulation · doi:10.1161/cir.0b013e318288b4dd · Cited by 142 · see citing works
“Finally, there may be concerns, real or perceived, that a Good Samaritan might be subject to legal action if the outcome is not favorable.(15,27) Facilitators to Increase Bystander CPR Scientific statements by the American Heart Association have highlighted the importance of community efforts to increase rates of byst…”
BackgroundBe aware to care: Public self-awareness leads to a reversal of the bystander effect
van Bommel, M., van Prooijen, J., Elffers, H., & Lange, P. A. M. V. (2012) · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2012.02.011 · Cited by 138 · see citing works
“A recent meta-analysis (Fischer et al., 2011) comparing over forty years of studies on the bystander effect clearly shows that the negative influence of groups on helping behavior is very strong in many different situations.”
BackgroundUnresponsive or un-noticed?: Cyberbystander intervention in an experimental cyberbullying context
Dillon, K. P., & Bushman, B. J. (2014) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2014.12.009 · Cited by 136 · see citing works
Chan, C.-S. R., Parhankangas, A., Sahaym, A., & Oo, P. P. (2019) · Journal of Business Venturing · doi:10.1016/j.jbusvent.2019.04.002 · Cited by 130 · see citing works
Self-compassion, empathy, and helping intentions
Welp, L. R., & Brown, C. M. (2013) · The Journal of Positive Psychology · doi:10.1080/17439760.2013.831465 · Cited by 123 · see citing works
“Given that situational factors greatly constrain actual acts of help (Fischer et al., 2011), it seems probable that a trait like self-compassion will affect help in only some situations.”
BackgroundShared responsibility in collective decisions
Zein, M. E., Bahrami, B., & Hertwig, R. (2019) · Nature Human Behaviour · doi:10.1038/s41562-019-0596-4 · Cited by 123 · see citing works
Philpot, R., Liebst, L. S., Levine, M., Bernasco, W., & Lindegaard, M. R. (2019) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/amp0000469 · Cited by 122 · see citing works
Butts, M. M., Lunt, D. C., Freling, T. H., & Gabriel, A. S. (2019) · Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes · doi:10.1016/j.obhdp.2018.12.006 · Cited by 120 · see citing works
Gunarathne, P., Rui, H., & Seidmann, A. A. (2018) · MIS Quarterly · doi:10.25300/misq/2018/14290 · Cited by 115 · see citing works
“Several other studies (Fischer et al. 2006; Fischer et al. 2011; Kalafat et al. 1993; Latané and Nida 1981) have also investigated various characteristics of the situation and the bystanders to explain the effect, such as the competence of the bystanders, the age and similarity of the bystanders,…”
BackgroundInterventions Against Norm Violations
Baumert, A., Halmburger, A., & Schmitt, M. (2013) · Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin · doi:10.1177/0146167213490032 · Cited by 113 · see citing works
“Similarly, bystander effects that typically reduce helping (Latané & Nida, 1981) do not seem to affect moral courage (Fischer et al., 2011; Harari, Harari, & White, 1985; Schwartz & Gottlieb, 1976).”
BackgroundDobbie, F., MacKintosh, A. M., Clegg, G. R., et al. (2018) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0193391 · Cited by 113 · see citing works
Jayawickreme, E., Meindl, P., Helzer, E. G., Furr, R. M., & Fleeson, W. (2014) · Theory and Research in Education · doi:10.1177/1477878514545206 · Cited by 112 · see citing works
“Subsequent research has cast doubt on many of these findings (Fischer et al., 2011), but for now we do not argue with the conclusions of these studies.”
ResultMechanisms of Alcohol-Facilitated Intimate Partner Violence
Eckhardt, C. I., Parrott, D. J., & Sprunger, J. G. (2015) · Violence Against Women · doi:10.1177/1077801215589376 · Cited by 110 · see citing works
“Decades of research have examined predictors of bystander behavior in response to emergency and non-emergency situations (for a review, see Fischer et al., 2011).”
BackgroundSocial Influence on Evacuation Behavior in Real and Virtual Environments
Kinateder, M. T., & Warren, W. H. (2016) · Frontiers in Robotics and AI · doi:10.3389/frobt.2016.00043 · Cited by 110 · see citing works
“Previous studies on social influence effects in emergency situations mostly focused on negative effects on helping behavior (Fischer et al., 2011).”
Social media use and work efficiency: Insights from the theory of communication visibility
Yang, X., Ye, H. J., & Wang, X. (2021) · Information & Management · doi:10.1016/j.im.2021.103462 · Cited by 114 · see citing works
Brief report: The bystander effect in cyberbullying incidents
Macháčková, H., Dědková, L., & Mezulanikova, K. (2015) · Journal of Adolescence · doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2015.05.010 · Cited by 110 · see citing works
Decision inertia: Deciding between least worst outcomes in emergency responses to disasters
Alison, L. J., Power, N., van den Heuvel, C., Humann, M., Palasinksi, M., & Crego, J. (2015) · Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology · doi:10.1111/joop.12108 · Cited by 107 · see citing works
“It is noteworthy that research on emergency decision-making is notoriously complex and might involve many variables, such as strategic group-level presentation (Van Leeuwen, 2007), intricate power relations (Nadler & Halabi, 2006), perceived dangerousness of emergencies (Fischer et al., 2011), and a whole spectrum of…”
BackgroundCarragher, M., Steel, G., O’Halloran, R., Torabi, T., Johnson, H., Taylor, N. F., & Rose, M. L. (2020) · Disability and Rehabilitation · doi:10.1080/09638288.2020.1722264 · Cited by 108 · see citing works
“The bystander effect is more likely to occur when there are a high number of bystanders or when the situation is ambiguous [43], both of which could describe a typical scenario of a patient with aphasia on a hospital ward.”
BackgroundBennett, S. A., Banyard, V. L., & Edwards, K. M. (2015) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/0886260515586373 · Cited by 107 · see citing works
“Grounded in previous research (e.g., Authors, 2014; Banyard & Moynihan, 2011; Curphy et al., 1998; Fischer et al., 2011; Nicksa, 2014), we hypothesized as follows:”
MethodSocial identity, group processes, and helping in emergencies
Levine, M., & Manning, R. (2013) · European Review of Social Psychology · doi:10.1080/10463283.2014.892318 · Cited by 106 · see citing works
“…has suggested that these processes are independent and operate at different stages of the decision-making process (Latané & Darley, 1970; Schwartz & Gottlieb, 1976; see also Fischer et al., 2011, for a recent meta-analysis of bystander intervention in emergencies and discussion of these processes).”
BackgroundHelping Thy Neighbor? Prosocial Reactions to Observed Abusive Supervision in the Workplace
Priesemuth, M., & Schminke, M. J. (2017) · Journal of Management · doi:10.1177/0149206317702219 · Cited by 104 · see citing works
Diffusion of Being Pivotal and Immoral Outcomes
Falk, A., Neuber, T., & Szech, N. (2020) · The Review of Economic Studies · doi:10.1093/restud/rdz064 · Cited by 103 · see citing works
“…exogenously but it is determined endogenously by the behaviour of others, giving rise to equilibrium considerations.6 Another related strand of literature in social psychology concerns the so-called bystander effect (see e.g. Latané and Darley, 1968 and for a recent overview Fischer et al., 2011).”
BackgroundThe Voice Bystander Effect: How Information Redundancy Inhibits Employee Voice
Hussain, I., Shu, R., Tangirala, S., & Ekkirala, S. (2018) · Academy of Management Journal · doi:10.5465/amj.2017.0245 · Cited by 105 · see citing works
The Making of a Hero: Cultivating Empathy, Altruism, and Heroic Imagination
Kohen, A., Langdon, M., & Riches, B. R. (2017) · Journal of Humanistic Psychology · doi:10.1177/0022167817708064 · Cited by 100 · see citing works
“A few studies have found that the bystander effect is weaker, or does not occur, for people with domain specific training, or training to recognize the bystander effect itself (Fischer et al., 2011).”
Professionalism: microaggression in the healthcare setting
Ehie, O. A., Muse, I. O., Weller, L. H., & Bastien, A. (2021) · Current Opinion in Anaesthesiology · doi:10.1097/aco.0000000000000966 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
“Social psychology research on the bystander effect indicates that other people’s presence reduces the likelihood that an individual will help, especially when situations are deemed to be nonurgent [37].”
BackgroundPost-traumatic stress disorder among LGBTQ people: a systematic review and meta-analysis
Marchi, M., Travascio, A., Uberti, D., Micheli, E. D., Grenzi, P., Arcolin, E., Pingani, L., Ferrari, S., & Galeazzi, G. M. (2023) · Epidemiology and Psychiatric Sciences · doi:10.1017/s2045796023000586 · Cited by 98 · see citing works
“For example, psychoeducation campaigns aimed at reducing victim-blaming and promoting intervening behaviours by bystanders has shown to be an effective mean of preventing inter-personal violence in societal settings (Fischer et al. , 2011; Wijaya et al. , 2022).”
Labhardt, D., Holdsworth, E., Brown, S., & Howat, D. (2017) · Aggression and Violent Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.avb.2017.05.005 · Cited by 97 · see citing works
Meissner, T. M., Kloppe, C., & Hanefeld, C. (2012) · Scandinavian Journal of Trauma Resuscitation and Emergency Medicine · doi:10.1186/1757-7241-20-31 · Cited by 101 · see citing works
“Students who feel competent and understand the concept of “diffusion of responsibility” will also be more likely to help [27-29].”
BackgroundFrom Empathy to Apathy: The Bystander Effect Revisited
Hortensius, R., & de Gelder, B. (2018) · Current Directions in Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0963721417749653 · Cited by 102 · see citing works
“Indeed, the only hit for the keyword “personality” in a recent overview (Fischer et al., 2011) was for journal names in the reference list (e.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialCorporate social irresponsibility and consumer punishment: A systematic review and research agenda
Valor, C., Antonetti, P., & Zasuwa, G. (2022) · Journal of Business Research · doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2022.02.063 · Cited by 95 · see citing works
Hamby, S. L., Weber, M. C., Grych, J. H., & Banyard, V. (2015) · Psychology of Violence · doi:10.1037/a0039073 · Cited by 93 · see citing works
“Other researchers specifically investigated barriers to bystanders helping (Burn, 2009) including the impact that danger or safety concerns by bystanders may have on intervention (Fischer et al., 2011).”
BackgroundHansen, C. M., Rosenkranz, S. M., Folke, F., Zinckernagel, L., Tjørnhøj‐Thomsen, T., Torp-Pedersen, C. T., Søndergaard, K. B., Nichol, G., & Rod, M. H. (2017) · Journal of the American Heart Association · doi:10.1161/jaha.116.004572 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
“This is supported by studies of healthcare professionals’ performance as well as social psychology studies of bystanders to emergencies.(44,47) A recent study of video recordings of OHCA identified a lack of teamwork, even when many bystanders were present.”
ResultSocial capital and entrepreneur resilience: Entrepreneur performance during violent protests in Togo
Dimitriadis, S. (2021) · Strategic Management Journal · doi:10.1002/smj.3292 · Cited by 90 · see citing works
Common knowledge, coordination, and strategic mentalizing in human social life
Freitas, J. D., Thomas, K. A., DeScioli, P., & Pinker, S. A. (2019) · Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences · doi:10.1073/pnas.1905518116 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
Leone, R. M., Haikalis, M., Parrott, D. J., & DiLillo, D. (2017) · Psychology of Violence · doi:10.1037/vio0000155 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
“Not surprisingly, bystanders are more likely to intervene in “dangerous emergencies” because they are less ambiguous and induce higher levels of arousal than lower level transgressions (Fischer et al., 2011).”
BackgroundPotential Suicide Ideation and Its Association With Observing Bullying at School
Rivers, I., & Noret, N. F. (2013) · Journal of Adolescent Health · doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2012.10.279 · Cited by 87 · see citing works
“Furthermore bystanders are more likely to offer physical support to victims when those victims were exclusively male, when they did not understand the social dynamics at play, when they knew the protagonists, or when there were virtually no other bystanders present [19].”
BackgroundMacaulay, P. J. R., Betts, L. R., Stiller, J., & Këllezi, B. (2022) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2022.107238 · Cited by 88 · see citing works
‘I could help, but . . .’: A dynamic sensemaking model of workplace bullying bystanders
Ng, K., Niven, K. R., & Hoel, H. (2019) · Human Relations · doi:10.1177/0018726719884617 · Cited by 85 · see citing works
Naab, T. K., Kalch, A., & Meitz, T. G. K. (2016) · New Media & Society · doi:10.1177/1461444816670923 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
“At the same time, response agreement may underline the need for flagging because the norm violation doubled and thus increase flagging behavior (Fischer et al., 2011).”
BackgroundInfluentialWong, R. Y. M., Cheung, C. M. K., Xiao, B. S., & Thatcher, J. B. (2021) · Information Systems Research · doi:10.1287/isre.2020.0983 · Cited by 89 · see citing works
LGBT discrimination on campus and heterosexual bystanders: Understanding intentions to intervene.
Dessel, A. B., Goodman, K. D., & Woodford, M. R. (2016) · Journal of Diversity in Higher Education · doi:10.1037/dhe0000015 · Cited by 84 · see citing works
“A metaanalysis of the bystander effect found that, among other things, knowing other bystanders lowered the bystander effect and increased intervening behaviors (Fischer et al., 2011).”
BackgroundInfluentialHow Emotions Shape Moral Behavior: Some Answers (and Questions) for the Field of Moral Psychology
Teper, R., Zhong, C., & Inzlicht, M. (2015) · Social and Personality Psychology Compass · doi:10.1111/spc3.12154 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
“The numerous experiments on bystander intervention have the same issue (see Fischer et al., 2011).”
BackgroundSocial Projection Can Solve Social Dilemmas
Krueger, J. I., DiDonato, T. E., & Freestone, D. M. (2012) · Psychological Inquiry · doi:10.1080/1047840x.2012.641167 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Self-citationCapturing violence in the night-time economy: A review of established and emerging methodologies
Philpot, R., Liebst, L. S., Møller, K., Lindegaard, M. R., & Levine, M. (2019) · Aggression and Violent Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.avb.2019.02.004 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
Bennett, S. A., & Banyard, V. L. (2014) · Psychology of Violence · doi:10.1037/a0037708 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
When Online Harassment Is Perceived as Justified
Blackwell, L., Chen, T., Schoenebeck, S. Y., & Lampe, C. A. C. (2018) · Proceedings of the International AAAI Conference on Web and Social Media · doi:10.1609/icwsm.v12i1.15036 · Cited by 80 · see citing works
“Empirical research confirms that the presence of bystanders in an emergency situation reduces helping responses (Fischer et al. 2011).”
BackgroundWho’s to blame?: The effects of victim disclosure on bystander reactions to cyberbullying
Schacter, H. L., Greenberg, S., & Juvonen, J. (2016) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2015.11.018 · Cited by 81 · see citing works
“Given that the likelihood of intervention decreases as number of bystanders increases (Fischer et al., 2011), the large size of online audiences may account for lower rates of intervention.”
BackgroundBalakrishnan, V. (2018) · Telematics and Informatics · doi:10.1016/j.tele.2018.02.002 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Feng, C., Deshpande, G., Liu, C., Gu, R., Luo, Y., & Krüeger, F. (2015) · Human Brain Mapping · doi:10.1002/hbm.23057 · Cited by 78 · see citing works
Dimensions of empathy and bystander intervention in bullying in elementary school
Fredrick, S. S., Jenkins, L. N., & Ray, K. (2020) · Journal of School Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jsp.2020.03.001 · Cited by 75 · see citing works
Bystander Intervention Among College Men
Orchowski, L. M., Berkowitz, A. D., Boggis, J. S., & Oesterle, D. W. (2015) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/0886260515581904 · Cited by 76 · see citing works
McMahon, S., Peterson, N. A., Winter, S. C., Palmer, J. E., Postmus, J. L., & Koenick, R. A. (2015) · American Journal of Community Psychology · doi:10.1007/s10464-015-9740-0 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
Individual and Social Predictors of Prosocial Behavior among Chinese Adolescents in Hong Kong
Lai, F. H., Siu, A. M. H., & Shek, D. T. L. (2015) · Frontiers in Pediatrics · doi:10.3389/fped.2015.00039 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
Kazerooni, F., Taylor, S. H., Bazarova, N. N., & Whitlock, J. L. (2018) · Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication · doi:10.1093/jcmc/zmy005 · Cited by 74 · see citing works
“These results mirror the finding of a meta-analysis on bystander intervention about attenuation of bystander apathy with severe content (Fischer et al., 2011), as having multiple offenders targeting a victim increased perceived hurt in our study, especially when they attacked with original tweets.”
ResultMeijer, E., van der Kleij, R., & Chavannes, N. H. (2019) · BMC Health Services Research · doi:10.1186/s12913-019-4527-x · Cited by 72 · see citing works
Is race still relevant? Student perceptions and experiences of racism in higher education
Wong, B., ElMorally, R., Copsey-Blake, M., Highwood, E. J., & Singarayer, J. S. (2020) · Cambridge Journal of Education · doi:10.1080/0305764x.2020.1831441 · Cited by 73 · see citing works
“The bystander effect is generally stronger when the perceived danger is considered less urgent (Fischer et al., 2011).”
BackgroundBrooks, S. C., Clegg, G. R., Bray, J., Deakin, C. D., Perkins, G. D., Ringh, M., Smith, C. M., Link, M. S., Merchant, R. M., Pezo-Morales, J., et al. (2022) · Resuscitation · doi:10.1016/j.resuscitation.2021.11.032 · Cited by 72 · see citing works
Ziegele, M., Naab, T. K., & Jost, P. (2019) · New Media & Society · doi:10.1177/1461444819870130 · Cited by 71 · see citing works
“Step 3: feeling responsible After perceiving an incident as harmful, bystanders need to feel responsible to engage rather than transfer responsibility to other people (Fischer et al., 2011; Thornberg, 2007).”
BackgroundInfluentialLiebst, L. S., Philpot, R., Bernasco, W., Dausel, K. L., Ejbye‐Ernst, P., Nicolaisen, M. H., & Lindegaard, M. R. (2019) · Aggressive Behavior · doi:10.1002/ab.21853 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
“The bystander research field has for decades focused on people presence as the chief predictor of intervention behavior—initially as an explanation of nonintervention (Latané & Darley, 1970), and more recently, in dangerous contexts, as a facilitator of intervention (Fischer et al., 2011).”
InfluentialKanov, J. M., Powley, E. H., & Walshe, N. D. (2016) · Human Relations · doi:10.1177/0018726716673144 · Cited by 69 · see citing works
“…on the bystander effect suggests that focal actors may refrain from taking action in the face of suffering if it is not unambiguously clear that someone is suffering, especially when there are real or perceived negative consequences associated with compassionate action (Fischer et al., 2011).”
BackgroundMcGill, K., Sackley, C. M., Godwin, J., McGarry, J., & Brady, M. (2020) · Trials · doi:10.1186/s13063-019-3991-2 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
Reward versus Altruistic Motivations in Reward-Based Crowdfunding
Ryu, S., Park, J., Kim, K., & Kim, Y. (2020) · International Journal of Electronic Commerce · doi:10.1080/10864415.2020.1715531 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Standing up or standing by: Bystander intervention in cyberbullying on social media
Wang, S. (2020) · New Media & Society · doi:10.1177/1461444820902541 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
“Although more severe emergencies produce greater likelihood of intervention (e.g. Fischer et al., 2011), bystanders tend to recognize a high-severity situation as more of a problem and less safe to intervene in than a low-severity situation (Bennett and Banyard, 2016).”
BackgroundBystander training for faculty: A promising approach to tackling microaggressions in the academy
Haynes, M. C., Metinyurt, T., Li, Y. L., Gonzales, J. E., & Bond, M. A. (2021) · New Ideas in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.newideapsych.2021.100882 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Thornberg, R., Wänström, L., Elmelid, R., Johansson, A., & Mellander, E. (2020) · Social Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/s11218-020-09549-z · Cited by 66 · see citing works
Jenkins, L. N., & Fredrick, S. S. (2017) · Journal of Youth and Adolescence · doi:10.1007/s10964-017-0637-0 · Cited by 65 · see citing works
“For example, relationship to the victim (Levine 1999), danger of the situation (Fischer et al. 2006; Fischer et al. 2011), peer pressure (Pozzoli et al.”
BackgroundYou, L., & Lee, Y.-H. (2019) · Telematics and Informatics · doi:10.1016/j.tele.2019.101284 · Cited by 66 · see citing works
What We Should Expect From Theories in Social Psychology
Lange, P. A. M. V. (2012) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1177/1088868312453088 · Cited by 67 · see citing works
Who’s to blame? Dissimilarity as a cue in moral judgments of observed ostracism episodes.
Rudert, S. C., Sutter, D., Corrodi, V. C., & Greifeneder, R. (2018) · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · doi:10.1037/pspa0000122 · Cited by 60 · see citing works
Erlandsson, A., Jungstrand, A., & Västfjäll, D. (2016) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01475 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
“Several situational aspects are known to influence the perceived responsibility to help, and in order to increase generalizability we included many types of responsibility-manipulations.”
BackgroundZhang, Y., Yan, Z., Zhu, H., Shen, Y., Guo, Q., & Guo, Q. (2019) · Sustainable Cities and Society · doi:10.1016/j.scs.2019.101423 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
Okay to say?: Initial validation of the Acceptability of Racial Microaggressions Scale.
Mekawi, Y., & Todd, N. R. (2018) · Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology · doi:10.1037/cdp0000201 · Cited by 58 · see citing works
Adolescent bystanders' perspectives of aggression in the online versus school environments☆
Patterson, L. J., Allan, A., & CROSS, D. S. (2016) · Journal of Adolescence · doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2016.02.003 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Studying sexual aggression: A review of the evolution and validity of laboratory paradigms.
Davis, K. C., Parrott, D. J., George, W. H., Tharp, A. T., Hall, G. C. N., & Stappenbeck, C. A. (2014) · Psychology of Violence · doi:10.1037/a0037662 · Cited by 57 · see citing works
“In fact, numerous prevention approaches currently exist that are founded upon decades of research on bystander intervention (for a review, see Fischer et al., 2011), and some bystander prevention programs result in short-term (Gidycz, Orchowski, & Berkowitz, 2011) or longer-term decreases in men’s…”
Background
- Authors
- Fischer, P., Krueger, J. I., Greitemeyer, T., Vogrincic, C., Kastenmüller, A., Frey, D., Heene, M., Wicher, M., & Kainbacher, M.
- Affiliations
- University of Regensburg (DE)
- Brown University (US)
- Universität Innsbruck (AT)
- Liverpool John Moores University (GB)
- Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München (DE)
- University of Graz (AT)
- ORCID
- Venue
- Psychological Bulletin
- Published
- 2011
- Volume
- 137
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 517-537
- ISSN
- 0033-2909 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1455
- OpenAlex
- W2107050526
- Semantic Scholar
- 43e957f87e561c4d2d65715e6fe94e872b34299e
- Cited by
- 983
- References
- 96
- Citations by year
- 2026: 73 · 2025: 80 · 2024: 86 · 2023: 85 · 2022: 82 · 2021: 97 · 2020: 85 · 2019: 83 · 2018: 68 · 2017: 53 · 2016: 60 · 2015: 50 · 2014: 30 · 2013: 34 · 2012: 16
- FWCI
- 88.46
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- closed
- Locations
- Psychological Bulletin (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- University of Regensburg Publication Server (University of Regensburg) (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- German Science Foundation(DFG) (FI 938/2-1)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Psychology of Social Influence
- Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Social Psychology › Bullying, Victimization, and Aggression
- Keywords
- bystander effect, bystander intervention, helping behavior, perceived danger, physical support, confederates
- MeSH terms
- Accidents, Arousal, Emergencies, Fear, Female, Helping Behavior, Humans, Male, Social Control, Informal, Social Identification, Violence, Bias, Confounding Factors, Epidemiologic, Crime Victims
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
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