The Schedule of Racist Events: A Measure of Racial Discrimination and a Study of Its Negative Physical and Mental Health Consequences

Landrine, Hope; Klonoff, Elizabeth A.

doi:10.1177/00957984960222002

Cited by 1,154Racial and Ethnic Identity ResearchSocial and Intergroup PsychologyPsychometric Methodologies and Testing

The Schedule of Racist Events: A Measure of Racial Discrimination and a Study of Its Negative Physical and Mental Health Consequences

Landrine, Hope, Klonoff, Elizabeth A.·1996·Journal of Black Psychology

DOI 10.1177/00957984960222002

Open this paper in CoChat — free account

Abstract

In this article, the authors develop a brief questionnaire that assesses racist discrimination in the lives ofAfricanAmericans, and conduct preliminary studies with it. The Schedule of Racist Events (SRE) is an 18-item self-report inventory that assesses the frequency of racist discrimination (specific, stressful racist events) in the past year (recent racist events) and in one's entire life (lifetime racist events), and measures the extent to which this discrimination was evaluated (appraised) as stressful (appraised racist events). Results revealed that the SRE has extremely high internal consistency and split-half reliability. Racist discrimination is rampant in the lives of African Americans and is strongly related to psychiatric symptoms and to cigarette smoking. These findings highlight the negative consequences of racismandprovide evidencefor the validity of the SRE as a measure of (culturally specific) stress.

Integrity signals

Registry

Crossref · 10.1177/00957984960222002

Cites

4 of 4 references verified0 citation errors · 0 not checkable

Statistics

Recomputing p-values needs the paper’s full text.

Claims the paper makes

We couldn’t retrieve this paper’s full text, so its claims and self-check weren’t run. The registry and citation checks still apply.

Claims other papers make about this one

Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?

Previous studies have demonstrated no relationship between SRE scores and age.
“However, it should be noted that previous studies have demonstrated no relationship between SRE scores and age (Klonoff et al., Citation1999; Landrine & Klonoff, Citation1996; Perry et al., Citation2013).”
From Examining associations between racism, internalized shame, and self-esteem among African Americans (2020) · cites this paper as Landrine & Klonoff, 1996

A Global Measure of Perceived Stress
Cohen, S., Kamarck, T., & Mermelstein, R. (1983) · Journal of Health and Social Behavior · doi:10.2307/2136404 · Cited by 32,807 · see citing works
Stress, social support, and the buffering hypothesis
Cohen, S., & Wills, T. A. (1985) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.98.2.310 · Cited by 18,093 · see citing works
Exemplification of a Method for Scaling Life Events: The PERI Life Events Scale
Dohrenwend, B. S., Askenasy, A. R., Krasnoff, L., & Dohrenwend, B. P. (1978) · Journal of Health and Social Behavior · doi:10.2307/2136536 · Cited by 1,211 · see citing works
Contrasting the Hassles Scale and the Perceived Stress Scale: Who's really measuring appraised stress?
Cohen, S. (1986) · American Psychologist · doi:10.1037/0003-066x.41.6.716 · Cited by 231 · see citing works

Flagged first, then by citations

Sorted by citations

Perceived discrimination and health: A meta-analytic review.
Pascoe, E. A., & Smart Richman, L. (2009) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/a0016059 · Cited by 4,427 · see citing works
Discrimination and racial disparities in health: evidence and needed research
Williams, D. R., & Mohammed, S. A. (2009) · Journal of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1007/s10865-008-9185-0 · Cited by 3,371 · see citing works
Racism as a Determinant of Health: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
Paradies, Y., Ben, J., Denson, N., Elias, A., Priest, N., Pieterse, A., Gupta, A., Kelaher, M., & Gee, G. (2015) · PLOS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0138511 · Cited by 2,610 · see citing works
Racial/Ethnic discrimination and health: findings from community studies
Williams, D. R., Neighbors, H. W., & Jackson, J. S. (2003) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.93.2.200 · Cited by 2,634 · see citing works
The consequences of perceived discrimination for psychological well-being: A meta-analytic review.
Schmitt, M. T., Branscombe, N. R., Postmes, T., & Garcia, A. (2014) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/a0035754 · Cited by 1,804 · see citing works
A systematic review of empirical research on self-reported racism and health
Paradies, Y. (2006) · International Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/ije/dyl056 · Cited by 1,681 · see citing works
A Systematic Review of Barriers and Facilitators to Minority Research Participation Among African Americans, Latinos, Asian Americans, and Pacific Islanders
George, S., Duran, N., & Norris, K. (2014) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.2013.301706 · Cited by 1,603 · see citing works
A multidimensional conceptualization of racism-related stress: Implications for the well-being of people of color.
Harrell, S. P. (2000) · American Journal of Orthopsychiatry · doi:10.1037/h0087722 · Cited by 1,589 · see citing works
Racism and Psychological and Emotional Injury: Recognizing and Assessing Race-Based Traumatic Stress
Carter, R. T. (2007) · The Counseling Psychologist · doi:10.1177/0011000006292033 · Cited by 1,316 · see citing works
Understanding the association between socioeconomic status and physical health: do negative emotions play a role?
Gallo, L. C., & Matthews, K. A. (2003) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.129.1.10 · Cited by 1,366 · see citing works
Racism and Mental Health: The African American experience
R. Williams, D., & Williams-Morris, R. (2000) · Ethnicity & Health · doi:10.1080/713667453 · Cited by 1,040 · see citing works
The Impact of Racism on Child and Adolescent Health
Trent, M., Dooley, D. G., Dougé, J., HEALTH, S. O. A., COUNCIL ON COMMUNITY PEDIATRICS, COMMITTEE ON ADOLESCENCE, Cavanaugh, R. M., Lacroix, A. E., Fanburg, J., Rahmandar, M. H., et al. (2019) · Pediatrics · doi:10.1542/peds.2019-1765 · Cited by 1,002 · see citing works
Reactions to discrimination, stigmatization, ostracism, and other forms of interpersonal rejection: A multimotive model
Smart Richman, L., & Leary, M. R. (2009) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/a0015250 · Cited by 942 · see citing works
A systematic review of studies examining the relationship between reported racism and health and wellbeing for children and young people
Priest, N., Paradies, Y., Trenerry, B., Truong, M., Karlsen, S., & Kelly, Y. (2013) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2012.11.031 · Cited by 877 · see citing works
Coping with racism: a selective review of the literature and a theoretical and methodological critique
Brondolo, E., Brady ver Halen, N., Pencille, M., Beatty, D., & Contrada, R. J. (2009) · Journal of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1007/s10865-008-9193-0 · Cited by 813 · see citing works
“Confrontation and anger expression Race-related maltreatment evokes anger (Brondolo et al. 2008; Broudy et al. 2007; Landrine and Klonoff 1996).”
Background
Coping with Perceived Discrimination: Does Ethnic Identity Protect Mental Health?
Mossakowski, K. N. (2003) · Journal of Health and Social Behavior · doi:10.2307/1519782 · Cited by 793 · see citing works
Perceived Racism and Mental Health Among Black American Adults: A Meta-Analytic Review
Pieterse, A. L., Todd, N. R., Neville, H. A., & Carter, R. T. (2012) · Journal of Counseling Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0026208 · Cited by 649 · see citing works
Physiological responses to racism and discrimination: An assessment of the evidence
Harrell, J. P., Hall, S., & Taliaferro, J. (2003) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.93.2.243 · Cited by 517 · see citing works
Daily multidimensional racial discrimination among Black U.S. American adolescents
English, D., Lambert, S. F., Tynes, B. M., Bowleg, L., Zea, M. C., & Howard, L. C. (2020) · Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2019.101068 · Cited by 370 · see citing works
Less drinking, yet more problems: understanding African American drinking and related problems
Zapolski, T. C. B., Pedersen, S. L., McCarthy, D. M., & Smith, G. T. (2014) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/a0032113 · Cited by 366 · see citing works
Racial differences in birth outcomes: the role of general, pregnancy, and racism stress
Dominguez, T. P., Dunkel-Schetter, C., Glynn, L. M., Hobel, C., & Sandman, C. A. (2008) · Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/0278-6133.27.2.194 · Cited by 337 · see citing works
Racism and Child Health: A Review of the Literature and Future Directions
Pachter, L. M., & Coll, C. G. (2009) · Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics · doi:10.1097/dbp.0b013e3181a7ed5a · Cited by 292 · see citing works
“It’s the skin you’re in”: African-American women talk about their experiences of racism. An exploratory study to develop measures of racism for birth outcome studies
Nuru-Jeter, A., Dominguez, T. P., Hammond, W. P., Leu, J., Skaff, M., Egerter, S., Jones, C. P., & Braveman, P. (2009) · Maternal and Child Health Journal · doi:10.1007/s10995-008-0357-x · Cited by 268 · see citing works
Racial and Gender Discrimination in the Stress Process: Implications for African American Women's Health and Well-Being
Perry, B. L., Harp, K. L. H., & Oser, C. B. (2013) · Sociological Perspectives · doi:10.1525/sop.2012.56.1.25 · Cited by 266 · see citing works
Moderating the association between discrimination and adjustment: a meta-analysis of ethnic/racial identity
Yip, T., Wang, Y., Mootoo, C., & Mirpuri, S. (2019) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/dev0000708 · Cited by 265 · see citing works
Vicarious Racism and Vigilance During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Mental Health Implications Among Asian and Black Americans
Chae, D. H., Yip, T., Martz, C. D., Chung, K., Richeson, J. A., Hajat, A., Curtis, D. S., Rogers, L. O., & LaVeist, T. A. (2021) · Public Health Reports® · doi:10.1177/00333549211018675 · Cited by 264 · see citing works
Development of the Teenager Experience of Racial Socialization Scale: Correlates of Race-Related Socialization Frequency from the Perspective of Black Youth
Stevenson, H. C., Cameron, R., Herrero-Taylor, T., & Davis, G. Y. (2002) · Journal of Black Psychology · doi:10.1177/0095798402028002002 · Cited by 249 · see citing works
Colonial mentality: A review and recommendation for Filipino American psychology
David, E. J. R., & Okazaki, S. (2006) · Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology · doi:10.1037/1099-9809.12.1.1 · Cited by 252 · see citing works
Impostor feelings as a moderator and mediator of the relationship between perceived discrimination and mental health among racial/ethnic minority college students.
Cokley, K., Smith, L., Bernard, D., Hurst, A., Jackson, S., Stone, S., Awosogba, O., Saucer, C., Bailey, M., & Roberts, D. (2017) · Journal of Counseling Psychology · doi:10.1037/cou0000198 · Cited by 241 · see citing works
Racism and hypertension: a review of the empirical evidence and implications for clinical practice
Brondolo, E., Love, E. E., Pencille, M., Schoenthaler, A., & Ogedegbe, G. (2011) · American Journal of Hypertension · doi:10.1038/ajh.2011.9 · Cited by 232 · see citing works
The relationship between perceived discrimination and generalized anxiety disorder among African Americans, afro Caribbeans, and non-Hispanic whites
Soto, J. A., Dawson-Andoh, N. A., & BeLue, R. (2011) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2010.09.011 · Cited by 226 · see citing works
Racial discrimination and health: A systematic review of scales with a focus on their psychometric properties
Bastos, J. L., Celeste, R. K., Faerstein, E., & Barros, A. J. D. (2010) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2009.12.020 · Cited by 227 · see citing works
Discrimination and drinking: A systematic review of the evidence
Gilbert, P. A., & Zemore, S. E. (2016) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2016.06.009 · Cited by 210 · see citing works
Race/ethnicity and measurement equivalence of the Everyday Discrimination Scale
Kim, G., Sellbom, M., & Ford, K.-L. (2014) · Psychological Assessment · doi:10.1037/a0036431 · Cited by 196 · see citing works
Reactions to racial discrimination: Emotional stress and help-seeking behaviors.
Carter, R. T., & Forsyth, J. (2010) · Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy · doi:10.1037/a0020102 · Cited by 190 · see citing works
Vigilance in the discrimination-stress model for Black Americans
Himmelstein, M. S., Young, D. M., Sanchez, D. T., & Jackson, J. S. (2015) · Psychology & Health · doi:10.1080/08870446.2014.966104 · Cited by 168 · see citing works
Perceived Discrimination and Physical Health Among HIV-Positive Black and Latino Men Who Have Sex with Men
Bogart, L. M., Landrine, H., Galvan, F. H., Wagner, G. J., & Klein, D. J. (2013) · AIDS and Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10461-012-0397-5 · Cited by 162 · see citing works
Self-citation
Contending With Stereotype Threat at Work: A Model of Long-Term Responses 1Ψ7
Block, C. J., Koch, S. M., Liberman, B. E., Merriweather, T. J., & Roberson, L. (2011) · The Counseling Psychologist · doi:10.1177/0011000010382459 · Cited by 128 · see citing works
Minority Stress and Sexual Problems among African-American Gay and Bisexual Men
Zamboni, B. D., & Crawford, I. (2007) · Archives of Sexual Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10508-006-9081-z · Cited by 114 · see citing works
Development and validation of the Internalized Racial Oppression Scale for Black individuals
Bailey, T.-K. M., Chung, Y. B., Williams, W. S., Singh, A. A., & Terrell, H. K. (2011) · Journal of Counseling Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0023585 · Cited by 102 · see citing works
The Positive Consequences of Pain: A Biopsychosocial Approach
Bastian, B., Jetten, J., Hornsey, M. J., & Leknes, S. (2014) · Personality and Social Psychology Review · doi:10.1177/1088868314527831 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
The relationship between racial identity status attitudes, racism-related coping, and mental health among Black Americans.
Forsyth, J., & Carter, R. T. (2012) · Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0027660 · Cited by 86 · see citing works
Birth Control Conspiracy Beliefs, Perceived Discrimination, and Contraception among African Americans: An Exploratory Study
Thorburn Bird, S., & Bogart, L. M. (2003) · Journal of Health Psychology · doi:10.1177/1359105303008002669 · Cited by 82 · see citing works
Perceived discrimination, ruminative subtypes, and risk for depressive symptoms in emerging adulthood.
Miranda, R., Polanco-Roman, L., Tsypes, A., & Valderrama, J. (2013) · Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0033504 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Examining associations between racism, internalized shame, and self-esteem among African Americans
Johnson, A. J. (2020) · Cogent Psychology · doi:10.1080/23311908.2020.1757857 · Cited by 63 · see citing works
“The SRE has demonstrated reliability in African American populations on the recent racist events (α = .95) and lifetime racist events (α = .95) (Landrine & Klonoff, 1996).”
BackgroundResultInfluential
Perceived discrimination, serotonin transporter linked polymorphic region status, and the development of conduct problems
Brody, G. H., Beach, S. R. H., Chen, Y.-F., Obasi, E., Philibert, R. A., Kogan, S. M., & Simons, R. L. (2011) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579411000046 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Perceived discrimination and chronic health in adults from nine ethnic subgroups in the USA
Carlisle, S. K. (2015) · Ethnicity & Health · doi:10.1080/13557858.2014.921891 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Generalized anxiety disorder in racial and ethnic minorities: A case of nativity and contextual factors
Budhwani, H., Hearld, K. R., & Chavez-Yenter, D. (2015) · Journal of Affective Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.jad.2015.01.035 · Cited by 40 · see citing works
Nonreactivity and resilience to stress: Gauging the mindfulness of African American college students
Freligh, C. B., & Debb, S. M. (2019) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-019-01203-w · Cited by 30 · see citing works
Understanding colourism in the UK: development and assessment of the everyday colourism scale
Craddock, N., Phoenix, A., White, P., Gentili, C., Diedrichs, P. C., & Barlow, F. (2023) · Ethnic and Racial Studies · doi:10.1080/01419870.2022.2149275 · Cited by 17 · see citing works
Exploring perceived control, a low-control task, and a brief acceptance intervention in a low and high transdiagnostic anxiety sample
Wadsworth, L. P., & Hayes-Skelton, S. A. (2020) · Neurology Psychiatry and Brain Research · doi:10.1016/j.npbr.2019.11.001 · Cited by 12 · see citing works

Authors: Landrine, H., & Klonoff, E. A.
Affiliations: Public Health Foundation (US)
California State University, San Bernardino (US)
ORCID: Landrine, Hope
Klonoff, Elizabeth A.
Venue: Journal of Black Psychology
Publisher: SAGE Publications
Published: 1996-05
Volume: 22
Issue: 2
Pages: 144-168
ISSN: 0095-7984 (ISSN-L)
1552-4558
DOI: 10.1177/00957984960222002
OpenAlex: W2078924888
Cited by: 1,154
References: 4
Citations by year: 2026: 26 · 2025: 25 · 2024: 42 · 2023: 28 · 2022: 31 · 2021: 44 · 2020: 41 · 2019: 56 · 2018: 38 · 2017: 53 · 2016: 71 · 2015: 62 · 2014: 61 · 2013: 64 · 2012: 68
FWCI: 35.05
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: closed
Licence: journals.sagepub.com/page/policies/text-and-data-mining-license (tdm)
Locations: Journal of Black Psychology (publishedVersion)
Topics: Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Racial and Ethnic Identity Research
Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Social and Intergroup Psychology
Social Sciences › Decision Sciences › Management Science and Operations Research › Psychometric Methodologies and Testing
Keywords: African Americans, racial stress, psychological stress measurement, psychiatric symptoms, cigarette smoking, questionnaire validity

About these checks

Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.

Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.

Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.

What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›

Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review

The Schedule of Racist Events: A Measure of Racial Discrimination and a Study of Its Negative Physical and Mental Health Consequences

Abstract

Integrity signals

Claims the paper makes

Claims other papers make about this one

Cites

Cited by

Record

About these checks