Racial/Ethnic discrimination and health: findings from community studies

Williams, David R.; Neighbors, Harold W.; Jackson, James S.

doi:10.2105/ajph.93.2.200

Cited by 2,634Racial and Ethnic Identity ResearchHealth disparities and outcomesGender, Health, and Social Inequality

Racial/Ethnic discrimination and health: findings from community studies

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Williams, David R., Neighbors, Harold W., Jackson, James S.·2003·American Journal of Public Health

DOI 10.2105/ajph.93.2.200PMC PMC1447717

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Abstract

The authors review the available empirical evidence from population-based studies of the association between perceptions of racial/ethnic discrimination and health. This research indicates that discrimination is associated with multiple indicators of poorer physical and, especially, mental health status. However, the extant research does not adequately address whether and how exposure to discrimination leads to increased risk of disease. Gaps in the literature include limitations linked to measurement of discrimination, research designs, and inattention to the way in which the association between discrimination and health unfolds over the life course. Research on stress points to important directions for the future assessment of discrimination and the testing of the underlying processes and mechanisms by which discrimination can lead to changes in health.

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Perceived discrimination and health: A meta-analytic review.
Pascoe, E. A., & Smart Richman, L. (2009) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/a0016059 · Cited by 4,427 · see citing works
Discrimination and racial disparities in health: evidence and needed research
Williams, D. R., & Mohammed, S. A. (2009) · Journal of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1007/s10865-008-9185-0 · Cited by 3,371 · see citing works
Self-citation
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Hatzenbuehler, M. L., Phelan, J. C., & Link, B. G. (2013) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.2012.301069 · Cited by 2,674 · see citing works
How does sexual minority stigma “get under the skin”? A psychological mediation framework
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Racism as a Determinant of Health: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
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Parents' ethnic-racial socialization practices: A review of research and directions for future study.
Hughes, D., Rodriguez, J., Smith, E. P., Johnson, D. J., Stevenson, H. C., & Spicer, P. (2006) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/0012-1649.42.5.747 · Cited by 2,420 · see citing works
Stress and Health: Major Findings and Policy Implications
Thoits, P. A. (2010) · Journal of Health and Social Behavior · doi:10.1177/0022146510383499 · Cited by 1,967 · see citing works
The consequences of perceived discrimination for psychological well-being: A meta-analytic review.
Schmitt, M. T., Branscombe, N. R., Postmes, T., & Garcia, A. (2014) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/a0035754 · Cited by 1,804 · see citing works
Experiences of discrimination: Validity and reliability of a self-report measure for population health research on racism and health
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A systematic review of empirical research on self-reported racism and health
Paradies, Y. (2006) · International Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/ije/dyl056 · Cited by 1,681 · see citing works
Impact of weight bias and stigma on quality of care and outcomes for patients with obesity
Phelan, S. M., Burgess, D. J., Yeazel, M. W., Hellerstedt, W. L., Griffin, J. M., & van Ryn, M. (2015) · Obesity Reviews · doi:10.1111/obr.12266 · Cited by 1,361 · see citing works
Racism and Psychological and Emotional Injury: Recognizing and Assessing Race-Based Traumatic Stress
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Adverse Childhood Experiences
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Stress and the mental health of populations of color: advancing our understanding of race-related stressors.
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Self-citation
Discrimination and Health Inequities
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Embodiment: a conceptual glossary for epidemiology
Krieger, N. (2005) · Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health · doi:10.1136/jech.2004.024562 · Cited by 964 · see citing works
Reactions to discrimination, stigmatization, ostracism, and other forms of interpersonal rejection: A multimotive model
Smart Richman, L., & Leary, M. R. (2009) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/a0015250 · Cited by 942 · see citing works
Social Sources Of Racial Disparities In Health
Williams, D. R., & Jackson, P. B. (2005) · Health Affairs · doi:10.1377/hlthaff.24.2.325 · Cited by 943 · see citing works
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Race, race-based discrimination, and health outcomes among African Americans
Mays, V. M., Cochran, S. D., & Barnes, N. W. (2007) · Annual Review of Psychology · doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.57.102904.190212 · Cited by 889 · see citing works
Methods for the Scientific Study of Discrimination and Health: An Ecosocial Approach
Krieger, N. (2012) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.2011.300544 · Cited by 854 · see citing works
Coping with racism: a selective review of the literature and a theoretical and methodological critique
Brondolo, E., Brady ver Halen, N., Pencille, M., Beatty, D., & Contrada, R. J. (2009) · Journal of Behavioral Medicine · doi:10.1007/s10865-008-9193-0 · Cited by 813 · see citing works
“…conceptual models, including those which consider racism within stress and coping frameworks, have described the ways that racism may confer risk for health impairment (Anderson et al. 1989; Clark et al. 1999; Harrell et al. 1998; Krieger 1999; Mays et al. 2007; Outlaw 1993; Williams et al. 2003).”
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Ethnic Differences in Pain and Pain Management
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The health of men: structured inequalities and opportunities
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Self-citation
Disparities and distrust: The implications of psychological processes for understanding racial disparities in health and health care
Dovidio, J. F., Penner, L. A., Albrecht, T. L., Norton, W. E., Gaertner, S. L., & Shelton, J. N. (2008) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2008.03.019 · Cited by 455 · see citing works
Ethnic differences among patients with cutaneous melanoma
Cormier, J. N., Xing, Y., Ding, M., Lee, J. E., Mansfield, P. F., Gershenwald, J. E., Ross, M. I., & Du, X. L. (2006) · Archives of Internal Medicine · doi:10.1001/archinte.166.17.1907 · Cited by 378 · see citing works
Perceived discrimination, race and health in South Africa
Williams, D. R., Gonzalez, H. M., Williams, S., Mohammed, S. A., Moomal, H., & Stein, D. J. (2008) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2008.03.021 · Cited by 362 · see citing works
Self-citation
Less drinking, yet more problems: understanding African American drinking and related problems
Zapolski, T. C. B., Pedersen, S. L., McCarthy, D. M., & Smith, G. T. (2014) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/a0032113 · Cited by 366 · see citing works
Sexual risk as an outcome of social oppression: Data from a probability sample of Latino gay men in three U.S. cities.
Díaz, R. M., Ayala, G., & Bein, E. (2004) · Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology · doi:10.1037/1099-9809.10.3.255 · Cited by 352 · see citing works
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Self-citation
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Dominguez, T. P., Dunkel-Schetter, C., Glynn, L. M., Hobel, C., & Sandman, C. A. (2008) · Health Psychology · doi:10.1037/0278-6133.27.2.194 · Cited by 337 · see citing works
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Racism and Child Health: A Review of the Literature and Future Directions
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Racial/ethnic disparities in hypertension prevalence: reconsidering the role of chronic stress
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Collateral Damage: The Health Effects of Invasive Police Encounters in New York City
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Overt and Subtle Racial Discrimination and Mental Health: Preliminary Findings for Korean Immigrants
Noh, S., Kaspar, V., & Wickrama, K. A. S. (2007) · American Journal of Public Health · doi:10.2105/ajph.2005.085316 · Cited by 271 · see citing works
“It’s the skin you’re in”: African-American women talk about their experiences of racism. An exploratory study to develop measures of racism for birth outcome studies
Nuru-Jeter, A., Dominguez, T. P., Hammond, W. P., Leu, J., Skaff, M., Egerter, S., Jones, C. P., & Braveman, P. (2009) · Maternal and Child Health Journal · doi:10.1007/s10995-008-0357-x · Cited by 268 · see citing works
Moderating the association between discrimination and adjustment: a meta-analysis of ethnic/racial identity
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The Burden of Stigma on Health and Well-Being: A Taxonomy of Concealment, Course, Disruptiveness, Aesthetics, Origin, and Peril Across 93 Stigmas
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Racial discrimination and health: A systematic review of scales with a focus on their psychometric properties
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The Life-Course Origins of Mastery among Older People
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School and Neighborhood Contexts, Perceptions of Racial Discrimination, and Psychological Well-being Among African American Adolescents
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Conceptualizing and Categorizing Race and Ethnicity in Health Services Research
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Racism experiences and psychological functioning in African American college freshmen: Is racial socialization a buffer?
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Stress model for research into preterm delivery among black women
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An integrative approach to health
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Vigilance in the discrimination-stress model for Black Americans
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Self-citation
Perceived Discrimination and Physical Health Among HIV-Positive Black and Latino Men Who Have Sex with Men
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Racial Discrimination: A Continuum of Violence Exposure for Children of Color
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Religion and Disparities: Considering the Influences of Islam on the Health of American Muslims
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Rumination partially mediates the associations between perceived ethnic discrimination, emotional distress, and aggression
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Do experiences of racial discrimination predict cardiovascular disease among African American men? The moderating role of internalized negative racial group attitudes
Chae, D. H., Lincoln, K. D., Adler, N. E., & Syme, S. L. (2010) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2010.05.045 · Cited by 143 · see citing works
Stereotypes, Prejudice, and Depression: The Integrated Perspective
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Perceived racial discrimination as an independent predictor of sleep disturbance and daytime fatigue
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Culture in psychiatric epidemiology: using ethnography and multiple mediator models to assess the relationship of caste with depression and anxiety in Nepal
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Integrating time into stigma and health research
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Cross-sectional association between perceived discrimination and hypertension in African-American men and women: the Pitt County Study
Roberts, C. B., Vines, A. I., Kaufman, J. S., & James, S. A. (2007) · American Journal of Epidemiology · doi:10.1093/aje/kwm334 · Cited by 96 · see citing works
Family Contexts: Parental Experiences of Discrimination and Child Mental Health
Tran, A. G. T. T. (2014) · American Journal of Community Psychology · doi:10.1007/s10464-013-9607-1 · Cited by 91 · see citing works
Coding the everyday discrimination scale: implications for exposure assessment and associations with hypertension and depression among a cross section of mid-life African American women
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Mammary Cancer and Social Interactions: Identifying Multiple Environments That Regulate Gene Expression Throughout the Life Span
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Experiences of racism and preterm birth: findings from a pregnancy risk assessment monitoring system, 2004 through 2012
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The Relationships among Vigilant Coping Style, Race, and Depression
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Self-citation
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Acculturative stress negatively impacts maternal depressive symptoms in Mexican-American women during pregnancy
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Perceived racial discrimination, but not mistrust of medical researchers, predicts the heat pain tolerance of African Americans with symptomatic knee osteoarthritis
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Addressing the impact of racism on veterans of color: A race-based stress and trauma intervention.
Carlson, M., Endlsey, M., Motley, D., Shawahin, L. N., & Williams, M. T. (2018) · Psychology of Violence · doi:10.1037/vio0000221 · Cited by 79 · see citing works
When white people report racial discrimination: The role of region, religion, and politics
Mayrl, D., & Saperstein, A. (2013) · Social Science Research · doi:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2012.12.007 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
Discrimination, psychosocial stress, and health among Latin American immigrants in Oregon
McClure, H. H., Snodgrass, J. J., Martinez, C. R., Eddy, J. M., Jiménez, R. A., & Isiordia, L. E. (2010) · American Journal of Human Biology · doi:10.1002/ajhb.21002 · Cited by 77 · see citing works
Perceived discrimination, ruminative subtypes, and risk for depressive symptoms in emerging adulthood.
Miranda, R., Polanco-Roman, L., Tsypes, A., & Valderrama, J. (2013) · Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology · doi:10.1037/a0033504 · Cited by 68 · see citing works
Nonsupportive Peer Norms and Incarceration as HIV Risk Correlates for Young Black Men who have Sex with Men
Jones, K. T., Johnson, W. D., Wheeler, D. P., Gray, P., Foust, E., Gaiter, J., & The North Carolina Men’s Health Initiative Study Team (2008) · AIDS and Behavior · doi:10.1007/s10461-007-9228-5 · Cited by 62 · see citing works
Political engagement and wellbeing among college students
Ballard, P. J., Ni, X., & Brocato, N. (2020) · Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2020.101209 · Cited by 61 · see citing works
Precision Medicine: Familiarity, Perceived Health Drivers, and Genetic Testing Considerations Across Health Literacy Levels in a Diverse Sample
Williams, J. R., Yeh, V. M., Bruce, M. A., Szetela, C., Ukoli, F., Wilkins, C. H., & Kripalani, S. (2019) · Journal of Genetic Counseling · doi:10.1007/s10897-018-0291-z · Cited by 58 · see citing works
A threatened identity: The mental health status of Syrian refugees in Egypt and its etiology
Kira, I. A., Shuwiekh, H., Rice, K., Al Ibraheem, B., & Aljakoub, J. (2017) · Identity · doi:10.1080/15283488.2017.1340163 · Cited by 56 · see citing works
Active coping moderates associations among race-related stress, rumination, and depressive symptoms in emerging adult African American women
Hill, L. K., & Hoggard, L. S. (2018) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579418001268 · Cited by 51 · see citing works
The Protective Role of Mindfulness in the Relationship Between Perceived Discrimination and Depression
Shallcross, A. J., & Spruill, T. M. (2018) · Mindfulness · doi:10.1007/s12671-017-0845-4 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
Perceived discrimination and chronic health in adults from nine ethnic subgroups in the USA
Carlisle, S. K. (2015) · Ethnicity & Health · doi:10.1080/13557858.2014.921891 · Cited by 46 · see citing works
The Social Patterns of a Biological Risk Factor for Disease: Race, Gender, Socioeconomic Position, and C-reactive Protein
Herd, P., Karraker, A., & Friedman, E. (2012) · The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences · doi:10.1093/geronb/gbs048 · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Associations of Employment Frustration with Self-Rated Physical and Mental Health Among Asian American Immigrants in the U.S. Labor Force
De Castro, A. B., Rue, T., & Takeuchi, D. T. (2010) · Public Health Nursing · doi:10.1111/j.1525-1446.2010.00891.x · Cited by 43 · see citing works
Intervention Induced Changes in Perceptions of Parenting and Risk Opportunities Among Rural African American
Murry, V. M., McNair, L. D., Myers, S. S., Chen, Y.-F., & Brody, G. H. (2014) · Journal of Child and Family Studies · doi:10.1007/s10826-013-9714-5 · Cited by 39 · see citing works
Ethnic and gender differences in the association between discrimination and depressive symptoms among five immigrant groups
Kim, I.-H., & Noh, S. (2014) · Journal of Immigrant and Minority Health · doi:10.1007/s10903-013-9969-3 · Cited by 37 · see citing works
Acculturative stress is associated with trajectory of anxiety symptoms during pregnancy in Mexican-American women
Preciado, A., & D’Anna-Hernandez, K. (2017) · Journal of Anxiety Disorders · doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2016.10.005 · Cited by 33 · see citing works
Contextual risk and promotive processes in Puerto Rican youths' internalizing trajectories in Puerto Rico and New York
Ramos-Olazagasti, M. A., Shrout, P. E., Yoshikawa, H., Canino, G. J., & Bird, H. R. (2013) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579413000151 · Cited by 31 · see citing works
Keeping hope alive: racial-ethnic disparities in distress tolerance are mitigated by religious/spiritual hope among Black Americans
McIntosh, R., Ironson, G., & Krause, N. (2021) · Journal of Psychosomatic Research · doi:10.1016/j.jpsychores.2021.110403 · Cited by 28 · see citing works
Perceived Discrimination, Experiential Avoidance, and Mental Health among Hispanic Adults in Primary Care
Zvolensky, M. J., Rogers, A. H., Mayorga, N. A., Shepherd, J. M., Bakhshaie, J., Garza, M., Viana, A. G., Ochoa-Perez, M., Lemaire, C., Ruiz, A., et al. (2022) · Transcultural Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/13634615211038159 · Cited by 22 · see citing works
“For instance, perceived racial discrimination is associated with poorer physical health and greater health complaints among Hispanic persons (Kessler et al., 1999; Pérez et al., 2008; Williams et al., 2003).”
Background
Beyond Three Faces: Toward an Integrated Social Psychology of Inequality
McLeod, J. D., Hallett, T., & Lively, K. J. (2015) · Advances in Group Processes · doi:10.1108/s0882-614520150000032001 · Cited by 20 · see citing works
Health Disparities Affecting Gay and Bisexual Men in the United States: An Introduction
(2007) · Unequal Opportunity · doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195301533.003.0001 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Collective Action in Response to Microaggression: Implications for Social Well-Being
Sohi, K. K., & Singh, P. (2015) · Race and Social Problems · doi:10.1007/s12552-015-9156-3 · Cited by 18 · see citing works
Building Better Clinical Relationships With Patients: An Argument for Digital Health Solutions With Black Men
Sherman, L. D., & Grande, S. W. (2019) · Health Services Insights · doi:10.1177/1178632919834315 · Cited by 10 · see citing works
Stress, Allostatic Load, and Health of Mexican Immigrants<sup>*</sup>
Kaestner, R., Pearson, J. A., Keene, D., & Geronimus, A. T. (2009) · Social Science Quarterly · doi:10.1111/j.1540-6237.2009.00648.x · Cited by 171 · see citing works

Authors: Williams, D. R., Neighbors, H. W., & Jackson, J. S.
Affiliations: University of Michigan (US)
ORCID: Williams, David R.
Neighbors, Harold W.
Jackson, James S.
Venue: American Journal of Public Health
Publisher: American Public Health Association
Published: 2003-02
Volume: 93
Issue: 2
Pages: 200-208
ISSN: 0090-0036 (ISSN-L)
1541-0048
DOI: 10.2105/ajph.93.2.200
PMC: PMC1447717
OpenAlex: W2152139345
Cited by: 2,634
References: 99
Citations by year: 2026: 41 · 2025: 59 · 2024: 82 · 2023: 86 · 2022: 83 · 2021: 127 · 2020: 171 · 2019: 128 · 2018: 134 · 2017: 164 · 2016: 139 · 2015: 150 · 2014: 153 · 2013: 154 · 2012: 173
FWCI: 199.87
Type: journal article
Language: en
Open access: green
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
Locations: American Journal of Public Health (publishedVersion)
PubMed Central (publishedVersion)
PubMed (publishedVersion)
Funders: John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation
National Institutes of Health
National Institute of Mental Health (MH59575, R01MH059575)
Topics: Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Racial and Ethnic Identity Research
Social Sciences › Health › Health disparities and outcomes
Social Sciences › Sociology and Political Science › Gender, Health, and Social Inequality
Keywords: racial and ethnic discrimination, health disparities, mental health, physical health, perceived discrimination, stress, life course, discrimination measurement, disease risk
MeSH terms: Ethnicity, Evaluation Studies as Topic, Health Status Indicators, Humans, Mental Health, Minority Groups, Prejudice, Public Health, Risk Factors, Stress, Psychological, United States, Outcome Assessment, Health Care

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Racial/Ethnic discrimination and health: findings from community studies

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