The DOI matches its Crossref record; 71 of the 71 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Learning science in immersive virtual reality.
Open accessAbstract
The goals of the study were (a) to compare the instructional effectiveness of immersive virtual reality (VR) versus a desktop slideshow as media for teaching scientific knowledge, and (b) to examine the efficacy of adding a generative learning strategy to a VR lesson. In Experiment 1, college students viewed a biology lesson about how the human body works either in immersive VR or via a self-directed PowerPoint slideshow on a desktop computer. Based on interest theory, it was predicted that students who learned in immersive VR would report more positive ratings of interest and motivation and would score higher on a posttest covering material in the lesson. In contrast, based on the cognitive theory of multimedia learning, it was predicted that students who learned with a well-designed slideshow would score higher on a posttest, although they might not report higher levels of interest and motivation. The results showed that students who viewed the slideshow performed significantly better on the posttest than the VR group, but reported lower motivation, interest, and engagement ratings. In Experiment 2, students either viewed a segmented VR lesson and produced a written summary after each segment or viewed the original, continuous VR lesson as in Experiment 1. Students who summarized the lesson after each segment performed significantly better on the posttest and the groups did not differ on reported interest, engagement, and motivation. These results support the cognitive theory of multimedia learning and demonstrate the value of generative learning strategies in immersive VR environments. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved)
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
In the citing paper
“Several studies have argued that VR simulations result in a signi fi cant increase in self-e ffi cacy by allowing students to actively interact with the virtual environment (Makransky et al., 2016; Parong & Mayer, 2018; Thisgaard & Makransky, 2017; Thompson & Dass, 2000).”
From Investigating the effect of pre-training when learning through immersive virtual reality and video: A media and methods experiment (2019) · cites this paper as Parong & Mayer, 2018
In the citing paper
“Previous literature has found that high-immersion media can result in more extraneous cognitive load processing, which results in less learning (e.g. Makransky et al., 2019b; Parong & Mayer, 2018).”
From Investigating the effect of pre-training when learning through immersive virtual reality and video: A media and methods experiment (2019) · cites this paper as Parong & Mayer, 2018
In the citing paper
“In a second experiment, they compared two groups using a VR simulation and found that, if given time to re fl ect between segments, scores increased on both factual ( d =1.14) and conceptual questions ( d =0.66).”
From Investigating the effect of pre-training when learning through immersive virtual reality and video: A media and methods experiment (2019) · cites this paper as Parong and Mayer (2018)
In the citing paper
“The authors argue that generative learning strategies such as summarizing can aid learning and limit cognitive load, while maintaining the motivational value of immersive VR learning environments.”
From Investigating the effect of pre-training when learning through immersive virtual reality and video: A media and methods experiment (2019) · cites this paper as Parong and Mayer (2018)
In the citing paper
“Parong and Mayer (2018) compared a VR simulation to a slideshow presentation, and found that the slideshow group performed better on factual questions ( d =1.12), but found no di ff erence on conceptual questions.”
From Investigating the effect of pre-training when learning through immersive virtual reality and video: A media and methods experiment (2019) · cites this paper as Parong and Mayer (2018)
In the citing paper
“The empirical articles that have investigated affective outcomes of educational interventions in IVR compared to less immersive media have generally been consistent in finding higher levels of presence (e.g., Buttussi and Chittaro 2018;Makransky and Lilleholt 2018;Makransky et al. 2019b;Parong and Mayer 2018), and interest (Makransky et al. 2020c;Parong and Mayer 2018).”
From The Cognitive Affective Model of Immersive Learning (CAMIL): a Theoretical Research-Based Model of Learning in Immersive Virtual Reality (2021) · cites this paper as Parong and Mayer 2018
In the citing paper
“Initial research suggests that the generative learning strategy of summarization improves factual and conceptual knowledge when applied within an IVR science simulation (Parong and Mayer 2018).”
From The Cognitive Affective Model of Immersive Learning (CAMIL): a Theoretical Research-Based Model of Learning in Immersive Virtual Reality (2021) · cites this paper as Parong and Mayer 2018
In the citing paper
“Parong and Mayer (2018) found that an immersive VR lesson was less effective than a PowerPoint lesson for acquiring factual knowledge, but they found no significant difference in conceptual knowledge acquisition.”
From The Cognitive Affective Model of Immersive Learning (CAMIL): a Theoretical Research-Based Model of Learning in Immersive Virtual Reality (2021) · cites this paper as Parong and Mayer 2018
Citations
Cites
Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change
Bandura, A. (1977) · Psychological Review · doi:10.1037/0033-295x.84.2.191 · Cited by 43,925
Mayer, R. E. (2009) · doi:10.1017/cbo9780511811678 · Cited by 7,800
Self-citationMayer, R. (2020) · doi:10.1017/9781316941355 · Cited by 7,777
Self-citation(2008) · Cited by 6,939
Self-Efficacy and Academic Motivation
Schunk, D. H. (1991) · Educational Psychologist · doi:10.1080/00461520.1991.9653133 · Cited by 4,292
Reconsidering Research on Learning from Media
Clark, R. E. (1983) · Review of Educational Research · doi:10.3102/00346543053004445 · Cited by 2,715
Merchant, Z., Goetz, E. T., Cifuentes, L., Keeney-Kennicutt, W., & Davis, T. J. (2014) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2013.07.033 · Cited by 2,109
Academic self-efficacy and first year college student performance and adjustment.
Chemers, M. M., Hu, L.-T., & Garcia, B. F. (2001) · Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1037/0022-0663.93.1.55 · Cited by 2,031
Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning
Mayer, R. E. (2014) · The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning · doi:10.1017/cbo9781139547369.005 · Cited by 1,976
Self-citationMedia will never influence learning
Clark, R. E. (1994) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/bf02299088 · Cited by 1,893
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 301–400 of 1,000
Xue, F., Guo, R., Yao, S., Wang, L., & Ma, K. (2023) · CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3544548.3580913 · Cited by 19
“Virtual environments have been considered powerful for supporting learning for decades [55, 63, 70, 82, 83, 101].”
BackgroundInfluentialImagine & immerse yourself: Does visuospatial imagery moderate learning in virtual reality?
Hartmann, C., Orli-Idrissi, Y., Pflieger, L. C. J., & Bannert, M. (2023) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2023.104909 · Cited by 19
Task type matters: The impact of virtual reality training on training performance
Yoon, M., Choi, K., Yoon, S., & Jo, I. (2023) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1111/jcal.12874 · Cited by 26
Coelho, P. H. A. B., Menezes, G. E., & Carretta, M. L. (2025) · Simpósio Brasileiro de Jogos e Entretenimento Digital (SBGames) · doi:10.5753/sbgames.2025.10226 · Cited by 18
Using Virtual Reality as a Form of Simulation in the Context of Legal Education
Cho, J., Jung, T. H., Macleod, K., & Swenson, A. (2021) · Progress in IS · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-68086-2_11 · Cited by 18
Nanotilus: Generator of Immersive Guided-Tours in Crowded 3D Environments
Alharbi, R., Strnad, O., Luidolt, L. R., Waldner, M., Kouřil, D., Bohak, C., Klein, T. R., Groller, E. M., & Viola, I. (2021) · IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics · doi:10.1109/tvcg.2021.3133592 · Cited by 18
“For example, Parong and Mayer [51] compared instructional effectiveness between immersive VR and a desktop slideshow.”
Du, C., Yu, C., Wang, T., & Zhang, F. (2022) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.766634 · Cited by 18
“VIT refers to the construction of stereoscopic images in three-dimensional (3D) space through various technologies, such as augmented reality (AR) (Krichenbauer et al., 2018), VR (Parong and Mayer, 2018), and holographic display (Elbamby et al., 2018).”
BackgroundWang, Y. (2022) · Journal of Educational Computing Research · doi:10.1177/07356331221098148 · Cited by 21
“…fi ndings echo those of previous studies which found that learners had more satisfaction when interesting features or game-like elements were added (Parong & Mayer, 2018; Saleem, Noori et al., 2022), while games with too much extraneous cognitive processing leave insuf fi cient cognitive resources…”
BackgroundResultInfluentialSulisworo, D., Erviana, V. Y., Robi’in, B., Sepriansyah, Y., & Soleh, A. (2022) · Education Research International · doi:10.1155/2022/4811544 · Cited by 18
“Nevertheless, it is worth considering that the increase in interest and motivation cannot always increase the achievement of higher learning if it is explained using the cognitive theory of multimedia learning [8, 25].”
BackgroundVirtual and augmented reality and pre-service teachers: Makers from muggles?
Taggart, S., Roulston, S., Brown, M., Donlon, E., Cowan, P., Farrell, R., & Campbell, A. (2023) · Australasian Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.14742/ajet.8610 · Cited by 18
“The technology has been cited by researchers as being useful in a range of diverse fields such as dissecting a virtual frog (Lee et al., 2010), teaching science (Parong & Mayer, 2018) or learning about thermodynamics (Coller & Shernoff, 2009).”
BackgroundLawson, A. P., & Martella, A. M. (2023) · Journal of Applied Learning & Teaching · doi:10.37074/jalt.2023.6.2.35 · Cited by 18
Moser, S., & Lewalter, D. (2024) · European Journal of Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/s10212-024-00813-w · Cited by 24
“Its use was also found advantageous during multimedia learning: Parong and Mayer (2018), e.g., investigated learning with a virtual reality simulation and additional content summarizing.”
Shackelford, L., Huang, W. D., Craig, A. B., Merrill, C., & Chen, D. (2019) · Educational Media International · doi:10.1080/09523987.2019.1669946 · Cited by 18
“As the instructional e ffi cacy of virtual reality (VR) remains inconclusive (Parong & Mayer, 2018), the motivational support from VR-delivered game features need to be empirically examined.”
BackgroundLiu, Y., & Butzlaff, A. (2021) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1111/jcal.12601 · Cited by 18
“For example, the high-immersive VR experiences (e.g., through head-mounted display) may greatly foster students' engagement, attitude, and level of presence but may not always lead to better learning outcomes (Makransky et al., 2019; Parong & Mayer, 2018).”
BackgroundIdrees, A., Morton, M., & Dabrowski, G. (2022) · International Conference of the Immersive Learning Research Network (iLRN) · doi:10.23919/ilrn55037.2022.9815897 · Cited by 17
Psychoeducation on Stress and Anxiety Using Virtual Reality: A Mixed-Methods Study
Pallavicini, F., Orena, E. F., Achille, F., Cassa, M. I., Vuolato, C., Stefanini, S., Caragnano, C., Pepe, A., Veronese, G., Ranieri, P., et al. (2022) · Applied Sciences · doi:10.3390/app12189110 · Cited by 22
“This questionnaire was developed and adapted using the methods adopted in a previous study [73].”
BackgroundMethodProcedural learning in virtual reality: The role of immersion, interactivity, and spatial ability.
Johnson, C. I., Bailey, S. K. T., Schroeder, B. L., & Marraffino, M. D. (2022) · Technology Mind and Behavior · doi:10.1037/tmb0000087 · Cited by 21
Virtual reality for fire safety training: study of factors involved in immersive learning
Ristor, R., Morélot, S., Garrigou, A., & Kaoua, B. N. (2023) · Virtual Reality · doi:10.1007/s10055-022-00743-2 · Cited by 17
Carpenter, R. E., McWhorter, R. R., Stone, K., & Coyne, L. (2023) · International Journal on Integrating Technology in Education · doi:10.5121/ijite.2023.12303 · Cited by 17
“Moreover, there is growing literature to suggests VR can enhance student motivation and engagement, leading to improved academic achievement and constructive learning [30].”
BackgroundMousavi, S. M. A., Powell, W. A., Louwerse, M. M., & Hendrickson, A. T. (2023) · Frontiers in Virtual Reality · doi:10.3389/frvir.2023.1250823 · Cited by 17
Li, L., Hu, Y., Yang, X., Wu, M., Tao, P., Chen, M. H., & Yang, C. (2024) · Humanities and Social Sciences Communications · doi:10.1057/s41599-024-03538-9 · Cited by 27
“This aligns with previous research highlighting the bene fi ts of immersive virtual environments for deeper learning and knowledge consolidation (Ekstrand et al. 2018; Menin et al. 2018; Parong and Mayer 2018).”
Exploring the Effects of Immersive Virtual Reality on Learning Outcomes: A Two-Path Model
Lin, Y., Wang, G., & Suh, A. (2020) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-50439-7_6 · Cited by 24
Pallavicini, F., Orena, E. F., Santo, S. G. D., Greci, L., Caragnano, C., Ranieri, P., Vuolato, C., Pepe, A., Veronese, G., Dakanalis, A., et al. (2021) · Frontiers in Virtual Reality · doi:10.3389/frvir.2021.620225 · Cited by 20
“Virtual reality (VR) represents a potentially very useful tool for psychoeducational programs, thanks especially to the greater involvement of users in the learning process compared to a standard lesson, such as learning from a textbook, slideshow, or lecture (Bailenson et al., 2008; De Freitas et al., 2010; Webster,…”
BackgroundMethodRichards, D., Lupack, S., BILGIN, A. A. B., Neil, B., & Porte, M. (2021) · Behaviour and Information Technology · doi:10.1080/0144929x.2021.2009571 · Cited by 20
“While we did not fi nd comparable studies focused on learning ancient history, researchers interested in the use of VR to learn science-based knowledge also found that VR did not improve learning (Makransky, Terkildsen, and Mayer 2019; Parong and Mayer 2018).”
BackgroundMethodResultEMBODIED DIGITAL TWINS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL APPLICATIONS
Klippel, A., Sajjadi, P., Zhao, J., Wallgrün, J. O., Huang, J., & Bagher, M. M. (2021) · ISPRS annals of the photogrammetry, remote sensing and spatial information sciences · doi:10.5194/isprs-annals-v-4-2021-193-2021 · Cited by 22
“We do find that immersive VR lead to inconclusive or no differences (Bursztyn et al., 2017, Jensen and Konradsen, 2018); and, in some cases can even show negative effects (Parong and Mayer, 2018).”
BackgroundStudy of Interaction Methods in Virtual Electrician Training
Górski, F., Grajewski, D., Buń, P., & Zawadzki, P. (2021) · IEEE Access · doi:10.1109/access.2021.3106826 · Cited by 17
“They are inextricably linked with the phenomenon of immersion in the virtual world, which allows the user to deeply engage, enabling more effective learning [7].”
BackgroundLawson, A. P., & Mayer, R. E. (2024) · International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1080/10447318.2024.2325176 · Cited by 16
“Prior research has demonstrated that experiencing an IVR lesson increases the amount of cognitive load learners must deal with during learning (e.g., Han, 2020; Huang et al., 2020; Makransky et al., 2019; Parong & Mayer, 2018, 2021a, 2021b).”
InfluentialSelf-citationAuthoring With Virtual Reality Nuggets—Lessons Learned
Horst, R., Naraghi-Taghi-Off, R., Rau, L., & Doerner, R. (2022) · Frontiers in Virtual Reality · doi:10.3389/frvir.2022.840729 · Cited by 19
“Content of the presentation that is expected to be less suitable to be communicated with VR technology [e.g., factual information such as the agenda, some company background data (Parong and Mayer, 2018)] remains in the original media and technology.”
BackgroundSouthgate, E. (2022) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-18138-2_12 · Cited by 16
Exploring the user experience of hands-free VR interaction methods during a Fitts’ task
Monteiro, P., Coelho, H., Gonçalves, G., Melo, M., & Bessa, M. (2023) · Computers & Graphics · doi:10.1016/j.cag.2023.10.005 · Cited by 16
Ferdinand, J., Gao, H., Stark, P., Bozkir, E., Hahn, J.-U., Kasneci, E., & Göllner, R. (2023) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2023.101867 · Cited by 17
Samala, A. D., Govender, T., Tsoy, D., Bojić, L., Samala, A. G., Samala, M. P., Prasetya, F., Yanto, D. T. P., Zainul, R., & Fortuna, A. (2024) · TEM Journal · doi:10.18421/tem131-48 · Cited by 31
Sulisworo, D., Erviana, V. Y., & Robi’in, B. (2024) · JOIV International Journal on Informatics Visualization · doi:10.62527/joiv.8.2.2467 · Cited by 28
“One particularly compelling innovation in this context is the development of VR [8], [16], [18], [19].”
BackgroundAcero, D. A. A., Romero-Toledo, F. A., Bautista, C. E. S., & Echeverri, E. A. A. (2024) · Future Internet · doi:10.3390/fi16080279 · Cited by 27
Rosenberg, J. M., & Lawson, M. A. (2019) · Education Sciences · doi:10.3390/educsci9010049 · Cited by 16
Porte, L., Boucheix, J., Rapet, L., Drai-Zerbib, V., & Martinez, J.-L. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1359071 · Cited by 15
“…and Petersen (2021), and below], a number of recent studies have revealed that IVR does not always have positive effects on learning compared to conventional desktop multimedia or video presentations (Parong and Mayer, 2018; Makransky et al., 2019a,b, 2020a; Makransky, 2022; Mayer et al., 2022).”
BackgroundExtended reality in the digital age: A literature review on technology-driven learning environments
Emma, O. (2025) · Computers & Education X Reality · doi:10.1016/j.cexr.2025.100127 · Cited by 15
Interactive Science Multimedia and Visuospatial Processing
Castro-Alonso, J. C., & Fiorella, L. (2019) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-20969-8_6 · Cited by 16
School students creating a virtual reality learning resource for children
Southgate, E., Grant, S., Ostrowski, S., Norwood, A. P., Williams, M. A., & Tafazoli, D. (2022) · IEEE Conference on Virtual Reality and 3D User Interfaces Abstracts and Workshops (VRW) · doi:10.1109/vrw55335.2022.00060 · Cited by 15
Recognizing shopper demographics from behavioral responses in a virtual reality store
Gil‐Lopez, C., Guixeres, J., Moghaddasi, M., Khatri, J., Marín‐Morales, J., & Alcañíz, M. (2023) · Virtual Reality · doi:10.1007/s10055-023-00767-2 · Cited by 15
“Indeed, some studies have suggested that high VR immersion experiences contain a distracting element affecting task performance (Moreno and Mayer 2004; Richards and Taylor 2015; Parong and Mayer 2018).”
BackgroundTaştan, H., & Tong, T. (2023) · Computer Applications in Engineering Education · doi:10.1002/cae.22631 · Cited by 15
Liu, J. H. M., Liu, Q., Yu, S., Ma, J., Liu, M., & Wu, L. (2023) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-023-12262-x · Cited by 18
“The high presence and immersion of a VRLE could stimulate learners’ situational interest (Parong & Mayer, 2018; Schutte, 2020).”
Fokides, E., & Antonopoulos, P. (2023) · Computers & Education X Reality · doi:10.1016/j.cexr.2023.100048 · Cited by 25
Chytas, D., Salmas, M., Skandalakis, G. P., & Troupis, T. G. (2021) · Anatomical Sciences Education · doi:10.1002/ase.2119 · Cited by 15
“However, according to other authors (Parong and Mayer, 2018; Checa and Bustillo, 2020), VR does not necessarily provide immersive experience, and could be run also via computer 2D screens.”
BackgroundBenefits of prompting students to generate summaries during pauses in segmented multimedia lessons
Wang, Y., Wang, F., Mayer, R. E., Hu, X., & Gong, S. (2023) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1111/jcal.12797 · Cited by 17
Self-citationHsu, Y.-T., & Lee, S. W. (2025) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-025-13807-y · Cited by 19
“1 , the proposed model hypothesizes that affective factors (i.e., presence, control and active learning) positively predict students’ cognitive load in IVR environments (Buttussi & Chittaro, 2017; Harp & Mayer, 1998; Makransky et al., 2017; Parong & Mayer, 2018; Winne & Azevedo, 2014).”
InfluentialBonali, F. L., Vitello, F. R., Kearl, M., Tibaldi, A., Whitworth, M., Antoniou, V., Russo, E., Delage, E., Nomikou, P., Becciani, U., et al. (2024) · Applied Computing and Geosciences · doi:10.1016/j.acags.2024.100156 · Cited by 14
Increasing the realism of on‐screen embodied instructors creates more looking but less learning
Li, W., Wang, F., & Mayer, R. E. (2024) · British Journal of Educational Psychology · doi:10.1111/bjep.12677 · Cited by 14
Self-citationHoter, E., Ahmad, M. Y. A., & Azulay, H. (2024) · Virtual Worlds · doi:10.3390/virtualworlds3030018 · Cited by 23
“Furthermore, virtual reality (VR) and virtual worlds (VWs) have emerged as promising tools to enhance student motivation in education by providing immersive, interactive, and engaging learning experiences [6,7].”
BackgroundImplementing Pretraining to Optimise Learning in Immersive Virtual Reality
Delgado, C. Y., & Mayer, R. E. (2024) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1111/jcal.13099 · Cited by 17
Self-citationFrazier, E., Lege, R., & Bonner, E. (2021) · Teaching English With Technology · Cited by 14
A Review of the Use of Virtual Reality for Teaching Radiology in Conjunction With Anatomy
Chytas, D., Salmas, M., Demesticha, T. D., Noussios, G., Paraskevas, G., Chrysanthou, C., Asouhidou, I., Katsourakis, A., & Fiska, A. (2021) · Cureus · doi:10.7759/cureus.20174 · Cited by 14
Viewpoint, embodiment, and roles in STEM learning technologies
Lindgren, R., & DeLiema, D. (2022) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-022-10101-3 · Cited by 16
“For example, a common design move in educational technologies is to anchor students in an observer visual viewpoint while still giving them some degree of interactive control over the representations they are viewing (e.g., Parong & Mayer, 2018; Wilensky & Resnick, 1999).”
BackgroundFerdinand, J., Soller, S., Hahn, J.-U., Parong, J. A., & Göllner, R. (2023) · Technology Mind and Behavior · doi:10.1037/tmb0000084 · Cited by 18
Self-citationDong, W., Zhou, M., Zhou, M., Jiang, B.-H., & Lu, J. (2023) · The Electronic Library · doi:10.1108/el-11-2022-0257 · Cited by 14
Asril, Z., Syafril, S., Engkizar, E., & Arifin, Z. (2023) · Jurnal Pendidikan Islam · doi:10.15575/jpi.v9i2.20567 · Cited by 14
Emerging Technologies in Education for Sustainable Development
Sung, A., Leong, K., & Cunningham, S. (2020) · Encyclopedia of the UN sustainable development goals · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-71067-9_61-1 · Cited by 17
The impact of visual cues on reducing cognitive load in interactive storybooks for children
Bali, C., Várkonyi, G., Szabó, M., & Zsido, A. N. (2025) · Journal of Experimental Child Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.jecp.2025.106320 · Cited by 13
Pang, D. C. G. (2021) · IADIS International Conferences Mobile Learning and Educational Technologies (ML and ICEduTech) · doi:10.33965/ml_icedutech2021_202102l013 · Cited by 13
McGowin, G., Fiore, S. M., & Oden, K. B. (2021) · Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting · doi:10.1177/1071181321651293 · Cited by 13
“Or at a micro-level, learners could traverse the body as a cell to learn about cellular mechanics (Parong & Mayer, 2018).”
BackgroundInfluentialHameed, B. S., & Hashim, H. B. (2022) · Creative Education · doi:10.4236/ce.2022.135113 · Cited by 13
Pitcher, B. D., Ravid, D. M., Mancarella, P. J., & Behrend, T. S. (2022) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0273788 · Cited by 13
“Compared to traditional methods of instruction, individuals using highly immersive EVEs for training in a variety of STEM fields have demonstrated more positive attitudes and reactions such as engagement, interest, and motivation [7, 13].”
BackgroundMolassiotis, A., Xie, Y. J., Leung, A. Y. M., Ho, G. W. K., Li, Y., Leung, P. H. M., Wang, H. L., Catherine Xiao Rui, C. H. E. N., Tong, D. W. K., Siu, J. Y., et al. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph192013392 · Cited by 13
“VR gives learners the illusion of being physically present in a real environment, which facilitates understanding of complex concepts and improves cognitive abilities such as memory and learning motivation [26].”
BackgroundLevels of Immersive Teaching and Learning: Influences of Challenges in the Everyday Classroom
Dengel, A., Buchner, J., Mulders, M., & Pirker, J. (2022) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-18138-2_7 · Cited by 13
Designing immersive experiences in virtual reality for design for additive manufacturing training
Mathur, J., Miller, S. R., Simpson, T. W., & Meisel, N. A. (2023) · Additive manufacturing · doi:10.1016/j.addma.2023.103875 · Cited by 16
Acevedo, P., Magana, A. J., Walsh, Y., Will, H., Beneš, B., & Mousas, C. (2024) · Computers & Education X Reality · doi:10.1016/j.cexr.2024.100075 · Cited by 20
“Previous studies have also reported acceptance of VR lessons (Parong & Mayer, 2018; Pirker et al., 2017), though factors such as the novelty effect can influence this preference (Miguel-Alonso, Checa, Guillen-Sanz, & Bustillo, 2024).”
BackgroundUnderstanding Learning and Learning Experience in Immersive Virtual Reality
Antonopoulos, P., Fokides, E., & Koutromanos, G. (2024) · Technology Knowledge and Learning · doi:10.1007/s10758-024-09764-z · Cited by 19
“This occurred despite existing literature that champions the positive impact of graphics’ quality on numerous factors such as immersion, motivation, and learning (e.g., Harrington, 2012 ; Kim & Ahn, 2021; Lee et al., 2010; Mystakidis, 2022; Parong & Mayer, 2018).”
iVRPM: Conceptual Proposal of an Immersive Virtual Reality Pedagogical Model
Bicalho, D. R., Piedade, J., & Matos, J. F. (2025) · Applied Sciences · doi:10.3390/app15042162 · Cited by 19
Wei, Z., Sun, J., Liao, J., Lee, L., Sio, C.-I., Hui, P., Qu, H., Tong, W., & Xu, X. (2025) · IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics · doi:10.1109/tvcg.2025.3549189 · Cited by 16
“Numerous studies have explored different learning modes in virtual reality, with a focus on individual and collaborative learning experiences [12,27,31,40,42,49,54].”
Adams, A. H., Feng, Y., Liu, J., & Stauffer, E. (2020) · Educational communications and technology: issues and innovations · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-53875-0_14 · Cited by 16
Adopting VR in the Classroom: Perceptions of bilingual and ESL education pre-service teachers
Figueroa, J., Huffman, L. F., Lozada, V. A., & Rosa-Dávila, E. (2022) · EDMETIC · doi:10.21071/edmetic.v11i1.13610 · Cited by 13
Cárdenas-Sainz, B. A., Estrada, M. L. B., Cabada, R. Z., & Chavez-Echeagaray, M. E. (2023) · Computers & Education X Reality · doi:10.1016/j.cexr.2023.100036 · Cited by 13
Become a Scrum Master: Immersive Virtual Reality Training to Learn Scrum Framework
Caserman, P., & Göbel, S. P. (2020) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-61814-8_3 · Cited by 13
Hartmann, C., & Bannert, M. (2022) · MedienPädagogik Zeitschrift für Theorie und Praxis der Medienbildung · doi:10.21240/mpaed/47/2022.04.18.x · Cited by 13
The important role of interaction when virtual reality is used for anatomy education
Chytas, D., Salmas, M., Demesticha, T. D., & Troupis, T. G. (2021) · Anatomical Sciences Education · doi:10.1002/ase.2154 · Cited by 13
“When the authors defined VR, they stated that it is necessarily characterized by the immersive nature, in contrast to other authors (Parong & Mayer, 2018; Checa & Bustillo, 2020 ), who argued that VR can be delivered either immer - sively or simply by two-dimensional (2D) computer screens which…”
ResultGuan, J., Wang, W., Wang, X., Zhu, J., & Hwang, G. (2024) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-024-10371-z · Cited by 12
“…results regarding the use of VR in education (Dalgarno & Lee, 2010; Merchant et al., 2013), such as making learners more motivated and engaged in learning (Huang et al., 2016; Parong & Mayer, 2018), thinking more critically (Tarng et al., 2017), and stimulating their creativity (Yang et al., 2018).”
Lawson, A. P., & Mayer, R. E. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1452385 · Cited by 19
“Parong and Mayer (2018) reported that students who were asked to summarize during breaks during an immersive virtual reality (IVR) lesson on the human bloodstream performed significantly better on a posttest than students who did not summarize during breaks in an IVR lesson.”
Self-citationChen, S., Xue, S., Yang, D., Zhu, L., & Ye, M. (2024) · Journal of Chemical Education · doi:10.1021/acs.jchemed.4c00557 · Cited by 12
Yoshimura, A., & Borst, C. W. (2020) · ACM Symposium on Virtual Reality Software and Technology (VRST) · doi:10.1145/3385956.3422124 · Cited by 12
“Although VR for education has been suggested to support presence, motivation, and engagement in various contexts (e.g., [2], [3], [10], [11], [15], [16]), there is little work on live lecture-style VR classes or on remote delivery directly to homes.”
BackgroundLernen in immersiven virtuellen Welten aus der Perspektive der Mediendidaktik
Buchner, J., & Mulders, M. (2020) · DOAJ (DOAJ: Directory of Open Access Journals) · doi:10.21243/mi-02-20-22 · Cited by 12
Mulders, M. (2020) · IEEE International Conference on Artificial Intelligence and Virtual Reality (AIVR) · doi:10.1109/aivr50618.2020.00081 · Cited by 12
“Incorporating an intelligent feedback system for progress will boost learner self-efficacy as well, which would in turn enhance motivation [11].”
BackgroundPapadimitriou, S., Kamitsios, M., Chrysafiadi, K., & Virvou, M. K. (2021) · Intelligent Decision Technologies · doi:10.3233/idt-200204 · Cited by 12
“Parong and Mayer [30] emphasize the increase of student’s interest, engagement, and motivation during the use of an immersive VR environment for teaching Biology.”
Engaging learners by tracing and summarizing in a computer‐based environment
Zuo, G., & Lin, L. (2022) · Applied Cognitive Psychology · doi:10.1002/acp.3928 · Cited by 12
Examining virtual reality as a platform for developing mental models of industrial systems
Slezaka, R. J., Keren, N., Gilbert, S. B., Harvey, M. E., Ryan, S. J., & Wiley, A. J. (2022) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1111/jcal.12731 · Cited by 13
Hussain, A. T., Halford, E., & Alkaabi, F. A. (2023) · Policing A Journal of Policy and Practice · doi:10.1093/police/paad028 · Cited by 12
Amrhein, C., & Balaban, D. C. (2024) · Computers in Human Behavior Reports · doi:10.1016/j.chbr.2024.100368 · Cited by 12
Virtual Reality Activities for Teaching Engineering Students Professional Development Skills
Nelson, M. E., & Ahn, B. (2018) · IEEE Frontiers in Education Conference (FIE) · doi:10.1109/fie.2018.8659258 · Cited by 12
“This was addressed in a paper from Parong and Mayer [18] in which a comparison was conducted between students learning in a VR simulation and with a multimedia slide-show on a desktop.”
MethodAn Exploratory Study on Practicing Listening Comprehension Skills in High-Immersion Virtual RealityPreprint
Ye, Y., & Kaplan‐Rakowski, R. (2023) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.4335690 · Cited by 12
Poupard, M., Larrue, F., Bertrand, M. M., Liguoro, D., Tricot, A., & Sauzeon, H. (2025) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2025.105332 · Cited by 12
Diriba, C., Abessa, T. G., Lamba, D., & Bonnechère, B. (2025) · Bioengineering · doi:10.3390/bioengineering12060581 · Cited by 12
“The continuous advancement of VR hardware and software has significantly enhanced the realism and immersion of virtual experiences [12,13], creating a sense of physical presence for users within the virtual environment.”
Ghasem, N. M. (2025) · Cogent Education · doi:10.1080/2331186x.2025.2560057 · Cited by 17
“Access to hardware — such as VR headsets and compatible devices — can be limited, exacerbating existing educational inequalities (Parong & Mayer, 2018).”
A Detailed Review of the Design and Evaluation of XR Applications in STEM Education and Training
Chandramouli, M., Zafar, A., & Williams, A. (2025) · Electronics · doi:10.3390/electronics14193818 · Cited by 15
Lawson, A. P., & Mayer, R. E. (2023) · Journal of Educational Computing Research · doi:10.1177/07356331231215752 · Cited by 13
“” The next nine questions assessed the participants ’ subjective experience of cognitive processing with three questions to assess for each extraneous, essential, and generative processing (Parong & Mayer, 2018, 2021).”
BackgroundSelf-citationBeatrice, P., Grimaldi, A., Bonometti, S., Caruso, E., Bracale, M., & Montagnoli, A. (2024) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2024.1354526 · Cited by 16
Petruse, R. E., Grecu, V., Chiliban, M.-B., & Tâlvan, E.-T. (2024) · Sensors · doi:10.3390/s24165138 · Cited by 17
“Only two studies found clear harmful effects of immersive VR use [48,49].”
BackgroundWitte, B. D., Reynaert, V., Hutain, J., Kieken, D., Jabbour, J., & Possik, J. (2024) · Computers & Education X Reality · doi:10.1016/j.cexr.2024.100085 · Cited by 12
Obourdin, G., Mæyer, S. D., & den Bossche, P. V. (2024) · Computers & Education X Reality · doi:10.1016/j.cexr.2024.100084 · Cited by 20
Spangenberger, P., Matthes, N., Kapp, F., Kruse, L., & Plass, J. L. (2024) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-024-10409-2 · Cited by 14
“This result is also in line with prior investigations comparing iVR to PowerPoint presentations (Parong & Mayer, 2018).”
Mulders, M., Träg, K. H., Kaninski, L., Kirner, L., & Kerres, M. (2025) · Journal of Research on Technology in Education · doi:10.1080/15391523.2025.2461524 · Cited by 23
“In the Parong and Mayer (2018) study, students took off their HMDs and wrote a summary, whereas in the Petersen et al. (2023) study students created their summaries verbally in VR while wearing their HMDs.”
InfluentialZimmermann, D., Wolf, P., & Kaspar, K. (2025) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2025.108643 · Cited by 14
Metadata
- Authors
- Parong, J., & Mayer, R. E.
- Affiliations
- University of California, Santa Barbara (US)
- Venue
- Journal of Educational Psychology
- Published
- 2018-08
- Volume
- 110
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 785-797
- ISSN
- 0022-0663 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-2176
- OpenAlex
- W2792133971
- Semantic Scholar
- dde037402363fde92e5f61c3c1d7f25620e1ef3d
- Cited by
- 1,088
- References
- 70
- Citations by year
- 2026: 202 · 2025: 180 · 2024: 154 · 2023: 147 · 2022: 140 · 2021: 125 · 2020: 93 · 2019: 35 · 2018: 11
- FWCI
- 65.71
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Locations
- Journal of Educational Psychology (publishedVersion, other-oa)
- Funders
- Office of Naval Research (N000141612046)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Human-Computer Interaction › Virtual Reality Applications and Impacts
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Social Sciences › Education › Online and Blended Learning
- Keywords
- immersive virtual reality, science learning, generative learning strategy, cognitive theory of multimedia learning, interest theory, student motivation, student engagement, biology education, teaching effectiveness
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
