The DOI matches its Crossref record; 71 of the 71 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Learning science in immersive virtual reality.
Open accessAbstract
The goals of the study were (a) to compare the instructional effectiveness of immersive virtual reality (VR) versus a desktop slideshow as media for teaching scientific knowledge, and (b) to examine the efficacy of adding a generative learning strategy to a VR lesson. In Experiment 1, college students viewed a biology lesson about how the human body works either in immersive VR or via a self-directed PowerPoint slideshow on a desktop computer. Based on interest theory, it was predicted that students who learned in immersive VR would report more positive ratings of interest and motivation and would score higher on a posttest covering material in the lesson. In contrast, based on the cognitive theory of multimedia learning, it was predicted that students who learned with a well-designed slideshow would score higher on a posttest, although they might not report higher levels of interest and motivation. The results showed that students who viewed the slideshow performed significantly better on the posttest than the VR group, but reported lower motivation, interest, and engagement ratings. In Experiment 2, students either viewed a segmented VR lesson and produced a written summary after each segment or viewed the original, continuous VR lesson as in Experiment 1. Students who summarized the lesson after each segment performed significantly better on the posttest and the groups did not differ on reported interest, engagement, and motivation. These results support the cognitive theory of multimedia learning and demonstrate the value of generative learning strategies in immersive VR environments. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved)
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“Several studies have argued that VR simulations result in a signi fi cant increase in self-e ffi cacy by allowing students to actively interact with the virtual environment (Makransky et al., 2016; Parong & Mayer, 2018; Thisgaard & Makransky, 2017; Thompson & Dass, 2000).”
From Investigating the effect of pre-training when learning through immersive virtual reality and video: A media and methods experiment (2019) · cites this paper as Parong & Mayer, 2018
In the citing paper
“Previous literature has found that high-immersion media can result in more extraneous cognitive load processing, which results in less learning (e.g. Makransky et al., 2019b; Parong & Mayer, 2018).”
From Investigating the effect of pre-training when learning through immersive virtual reality and video: A media and methods experiment (2019) · cites this paper as Parong & Mayer, 2018
In the citing paper
“In a second experiment, they compared two groups using a VR simulation and found that, if given time to re fl ect between segments, scores increased on both factual ( d =1.14) and conceptual questions ( d =0.66).”
From Investigating the effect of pre-training when learning through immersive virtual reality and video: A media and methods experiment (2019) · cites this paper as Parong and Mayer (2018)
In the citing paper
“The authors argue that generative learning strategies such as summarizing can aid learning and limit cognitive load, while maintaining the motivational value of immersive VR learning environments.”
From Investigating the effect of pre-training when learning through immersive virtual reality and video: A media and methods experiment (2019) · cites this paper as Parong and Mayer (2018)
In the citing paper
“Parong and Mayer (2018) compared a VR simulation to a slideshow presentation, and found that the slideshow group performed better on factual questions ( d =1.12), but found no di ff erence on conceptual questions.”
From Investigating the effect of pre-training when learning through immersive virtual reality and video: A media and methods experiment (2019) · cites this paper as Parong and Mayer (2018)
In the citing paper
“The empirical articles that have investigated affective outcomes of educational interventions in IVR compared to less immersive media have generally been consistent in finding higher levels of presence (e.g., Buttussi and Chittaro 2018;Makransky and Lilleholt 2018;Makransky et al. 2019b;Parong and Mayer 2018), and interest (Makransky et al. 2020c;Parong and Mayer 2018).”
From The Cognitive Affective Model of Immersive Learning (CAMIL): a Theoretical Research-Based Model of Learning in Immersive Virtual Reality (2021) · cites this paper as Parong and Mayer 2018
In the citing paper
“Initial research suggests that the generative learning strategy of summarization improves factual and conceptual knowledge when applied within an IVR science simulation (Parong and Mayer 2018).”
From The Cognitive Affective Model of Immersive Learning (CAMIL): a Theoretical Research-Based Model of Learning in Immersive Virtual Reality (2021) · cites this paper as Parong and Mayer 2018
In the citing paper
“Parong and Mayer (2018) found that an immersive VR lesson was less effective than a PowerPoint lesson for acquiring factual knowledge, but they found no significant difference in conceptual knowledge acquisition.”
From The Cognitive Affective Model of Immersive Learning (CAMIL): a Theoretical Research-Based Model of Learning in Immersive Virtual Reality (2021) · cites this paper as Parong and Mayer 2018
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Extended Realities: The future of interactive teaching and learning
Constante, G. F. G., López, Y. A. B., Achig, V. H. Z., Chávez, V. I. R., & Martínez, R. L. G. (2024) · Revista VICTEC · doi:10.61395/victec.v5i8.157 · Cited by 2
Sukadiono, S., Mundakir, M., Hakim, L., Choliq, I., Fitriyani, V. R., Syarifurrahman, I., & Nasrullah, D. (2025) · Kontakt · doi:10.32725/kont.2025.002 · Cited by 2
Othman, M. K., Mat, R., & Zulkiply, N. B. (2025) · Education and Information Technologies · doi:10.1007/s10639-024-13234-5 · Cited by 2
Virtual Laboratories in STEM Education: A Focus on Onlabs, a 3D Virtual Reality Biology Laboratory
Sypsas, A., Paxinou, E., Zafeiropoulos, V., & Kalles, D. (2024) · Lecture notes in networks and systems · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-70771-1_16 · Cited by 5
Mohsen, M. A., Althebi, S., Bensalem, E., & Alsherif, N. (2025) · Journal of Computing in Higher Education · doi:10.1007/s12528-025-09435-7 · Cited by 3
“…(Alamri, 2021 ; Chen & Wang, 2020; Sung & Mayer, 2012 ), virtual learning environments(Dung, 2020 ; Hew & Cheung, 2010; Kartiko et al., 2010 ; Lee & Wong, 2014 ; Parong & Mayer, 2018), and augmented learning environments (Bölek et al., 2021 ; Buchner, 2023; Chang et al., 2022; Hwang et al., 2016 ).”
VR Study Highlights the Need for an Adaptive Learning Environment in Industrial Safety Training
Hannah, R., Matuszczak, J., & Briggs, M. (2025) · Journal of Educational Technology Systems · doi:10.1177/00472395251330646 · Cited by 3
“The VR exercises were grounded in principles from various research articles and studies such as those by Jerald (2015), Bertram et al. (2015), and Parong and Mayer (2018).”
Johansen, F., Stalheim, O. R., Løvsletten, M., Furulund, L., & Toft, H. (2025) · Interactive Learning Environments · doi:10.1080/10494820.2025.2491629 · Cited by 2
“…interest (Marougkas et al., 2023), yet uncertainties remain regarding its pedagogical effectiveness, measurable learning outcomes, and practical applicability in nursing education (Grassini et al., 2020; Hamilton et al., 2021; Makransky et al., 2019; Merchant et al., 2014; Parong & Mayer, 2018).”
Extended reality in higher education: A case study in film, theatre, and performance practice
Young, G. W., O’Dwyer, N., Johnson, N. E., & Smolić, A. (2025) · Arts and Humanities in Higher Education · doi:10.1177/14740222251341403 · Cited by 2
“Therefore, using XR in the classroom can be grounded in students ’ motivations to use new technologies (Parong and Mayer, 2018).”
InfluentialNingsih, M. P., Novitasari, N., Ramadhan, I., Nurdianti, R. R. S., Shaari, M. Z. B. A., Hannah, B., & Durgaryan, A. M. (2025) · International Journal of Social Learning (IJSL) · doi:10.47134/ijsl.v5i2.374 · Cited by 2
“Multimedia presentation in virtual reality can provide students with an experience to interact more closely with teaching materials (Parong & Mayer, 2018).”
Exploration of interactive nuclide chart visualisations in virtual reality for physics education
Zöllner, J., Preim, B., Vahlbruch, J.-W., Pottgießer, V., & Saalfeld, P. (2025) · Computers & Graphics · doi:10.1016/j.cag.2025.104258 · Cited by 2
Xiao, L. (2024) · International Conference on Artificial Intelligence, Digital Media Technology and Interaction Design (ICADI) · doi:10.1145/3726010.3726035 · Cited by 2
“They offer privilege to investigate the products in a practical virtual workspace [1-4].”
Wang, Y. X., Luo, T., Abidin, A. H. Z., & Dzakırıa, H. (2025) · SAGE Open · doi:10.1177/21582440251362741 · Cited by 2
“Aesthetic Complexity and Learning Feedback: The findings regarding aesthetic complexity support previous studies emphasizing the cognitive and emotional challenges posed by intricate artworks (Parong & Mayer, 2018; Rosser, 2022).”
Optimizing VR Learning with Eye-Tracking and Deep Learning: Enhancing Concentration and Memory
Lu, K., Sui, Q., & Chen, X. (2025) · International Journal of Humanoid Robotics · doi:10.1142/s0219843625400110 · Cited by 2
Sommer, J., Dilling, F., & Witzke, I. (2022) · MINTUS – Beiträge zur mathematisch-naturwissenschaftlichen Bildung · doi:10.1007/978-3-658-36764-0_12 · Cited by 2
Transforming Science Education through Digital Technology
Choudhary, F. R., & Khushnood, S. (2019) · International Journal of Innovation in Teaching and Learning (IJITL) · doi:10.35993/ijitl.v5i2.698 · Cited by 2
Multimedia Learning with Media
(2021) · Cambridge University Press eBooks · doi:10.1017/9781108894333.045 · Cited by 2
Multimedia Learning in e-Courses
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The Application of Virtual Simulation Technology in Law Teaching Practice
Li, H., & Xu, J. (2021) · Lecture notes in computer science · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-92836-0_4 · Cited by 2
The Effects of Interactivity on Learners’ Experience in a Visually Immersive Display Context
Salame, Y., Léger, P., Charland, P., Vignaux, M. M. D., Durand, E., Bouillot, N., Pardoen, M., Martineau, M. D., & Sénécal, S. (2022) · Computers in the Schools · doi:10.1080/07380569.2022.2037296 · Cited by 2
“This questionnaire were adapted from different scales (Bradley et al., 1992; Davis, 1989; Kasimu and Nantomah, 2019; Parong & Mayer, 2018; Schwind et al., 2019), to assess the participants’ emotional, cognitive, and perceptual/attitudinal states (with Likert scale type items), as well as learning…”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialKamali, R., Anderson, J., & Meyers, M. (2020) · ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition · doi:10.18260/1-2--32527 · Cited by 2
“Furthermore, the temptation to utilize VR too much can come at the cost of education [3].”
BackgroundREEdI-Rethinking Engineering Education in Ireland
Boyle, F., Moolman, J., Stephens, R., & Walsh, J. L. (2022) · Lecture notes in networks and systems · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-04286-7_15 · Cited by 2
Hakim, L., Lubis, P. H. M., & Khaokhajorn, W. (2022) · Jurnal Kependidikan Penelitian Inovasi Pembelajaran · doi:10.21831/jk.v6i1.47735 · Cited by 2
“The presentation of adaptive electrical material is an important component because a good presentation of the material will increase students' interest in learning, foster curiosity, and help students understand the concept (Parong & Mayer, 2018).”
BackgroundVergleichende Evaluation von Explorationsarten in interaktiven 3D-360°-Anwendungen
Funk, J., & Schmidt, L. (2023) · MedienPädagogik Zeitschrift für Theorie und Praxis der Medienbildung · doi:10.21240/mpaed/51/2023.01.22.x · Cited by 2
Arslan, K., & Arı, A. G. (2023) · IBAD Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi · doi:10.21733/ibad.1189330 · Cited by 4
Optimization of Immersive Blended Learning as the Main Direction of Development of "Education 4.0"
Shishov, S., Кальней, В. А., & Ryahimova, E. (2023) · Scientific Research and Development Socio-Humanitarian Research and Technology · doi:10.12737/2306-1731-2023-12-1-4-12 · Cited by 2
Metadata
- Authors
- Parong, J., & Mayer, R. E.
- Affiliations
- University of California, Santa Barbara (US)
- Venue
- Journal of Educational Psychology
- Published
- 2018-08
- Volume
- 110
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 785-797
- ISSN
- 0022-0663 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-2176
- OpenAlex
- W2792133971
- Semantic Scholar
- dde037402363fde92e5f61c3c1d7f25620e1ef3d
- Cited by
- 1,088
- References
- 70
- Citations by year
- 2026: 202 · 2025: 180 · 2024: 154 · 2023: 147 · 2022: 140 · 2021: 125 · 2020: 93 · 2019: 35 · 2018: 11
- FWCI
- 65.71
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Locations
- Journal of Educational Psychology (publishedVersion, other-oa)
- Funders
- Office of Naval Research (N000141612046)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Human-Computer Interaction › Virtual Reality Applications and Impacts
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Social Sciences › Education › Online and Blended Learning
- Keywords
- immersive virtual reality, science learning, generative learning strategy, cognitive theory of multimedia learning, interest theory, student motivation, student engagement, biology education, teaching effectiveness
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