The DOI matches its Crossref record; 71 of the 71 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Learning science in immersive virtual reality.
Open accessAbstract
The goals of the study were (a) to compare the instructional effectiveness of immersive virtual reality (VR) versus a desktop slideshow as media for teaching scientific knowledge, and (b) to examine the efficacy of adding a generative learning strategy to a VR lesson. In Experiment 1, college students viewed a biology lesson about how the human body works either in immersive VR or via a self-directed PowerPoint slideshow on a desktop computer. Based on interest theory, it was predicted that students who learned in immersive VR would report more positive ratings of interest and motivation and would score higher on a posttest covering material in the lesson. In contrast, based on the cognitive theory of multimedia learning, it was predicted that students who learned with a well-designed slideshow would score higher on a posttest, although they might not report higher levels of interest and motivation. The results showed that students who viewed the slideshow performed significantly better on the posttest than the VR group, but reported lower motivation, interest, and engagement ratings. In Experiment 2, students either viewed a segmented VR lesson and produced a written summary after each segment or viewed the original, continuous VR lesson as in Experiment 1. Students who summarized the lesson after each segment performed significantly better on the posttest and the groups did not differ on reported interest, engagement, and motivation. These results support the cognitive theory of multimedia learning and demonstrate the value of generative learning strategies in immersive VR environments. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved)
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“Several studies have argued that VR simulations result in a signi fi cant increase in self-e ffi cacy by allowing students to actively interact with the virtual environment (Makransky et al., 2016; Parong & Mayer, 2018; Thisgaard & Makransky, 2017; Thompson & Dass, 2000).”
From Investigating the effect of pre-training when learning through immersive virtual reality and video: A media and methods experiment (2019) · cites this paper as Parong & Mayer, 2018
In the citing paper
“Previous literature has found that high-immersion media can result in more extraneous cognitive load processing, which results in less learning (e.g. Makransky et al., 2019b; Parong & Mayer, 2018).”
From Investigating the effect of pre-training when learning through immersive virtual reality and video: A media and methods experiment (2019) · cites this paper as Parong & Mayer, 2018
In the citing paper
“In a second experiment, they compared two groups using a VR simulation and found that, if given time to re fl ect between segments, scores increased on both factual ( d =1.14) and conceptual questions ( d =0.66).”
From Investigating the effect of pre-training when learning through immersive virtual reality and video: A media and methods experiment (2019) · cites this paper as Parong and Mayer (2018)
In the citing paper
“The authors argue that generative learning strategies such as summarizing can aid learning and limit cognitive load, while maintaining the motivational value of immersive VR learning environments.”
From Investigating the effect of pre-training when learning through immersive virtual reality and video: A media and methods experiment (2019) · cites this paper as Parong and Mayer (2018)
In the citing paper
“Parong and Mayer (2018) compared a VR simulation to a slideshow presentation, and found that the slideshow group performed better on factual questions ( d =1.12), but found no di ff erence on conceptual questions.”
From Investigating the effect of pre-training when learning through immersive virtual reality and video: A media and methods experiment (2019) · cites this paper as Parong and Mayer (2018)
In the citing paper
“The empirical articles that have investigated affective outcomes of educational interventions in IVR compared to less immersive media have generally been consistent in finding higher levels of presence (e.g., Buttussi and Chittaro 2018;Makransky and Lilleholt 2018;Makransky et al. 2019b;Parong and Mayer 2018), and interest (Makransky et al. 2020c;Parong and Mayer 2018).”
From The Cognitive Affective Model of Immersive Learning (CAMIL): a Theoretical Research-Based Model of Learning in Immersive Virtual Reality (2021) · cites this paper as Parong and Mayer 2018
In the citing paper
“Initial research suggests that the generative learning strategy of summarization improves factual and conceptual knowledge when applied within an IVR science simulation (Parong and Mayer 2018).”
From The Cognitive Affective Model of Immersive Learning (CAMIL): a Theoretical Research-Based Model of Learning in Immersive Virtual Reality (2021) · cites this paper as Parong and Mayer 2018
In the citing paper
“Parong and Mayer (2018) found that an immersive VR lesson was less effective than a PowerPoint lesson for acquiring factual knowledge, but they found no significant difference in conceptual knowledge acquisition.”
From The Cognitive Affective Model of Immersive Learning (CAMIL): a Theoretical Research-Based Model of Learning in Immersive Virtual Reality (2021) · cites this paper as Parong and Mayer 2018
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“For example, by providing preset learning content to learners, virtual reality-based smart learning environment has a positive impact on learners’ learning interest and motivation, but has no significant impact on their academic performance (Parong and Mayer, 2018).”
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“Results from Parong and Mayer’s [103] study support this argument, as they saw an increase in the effectiveness of VR after they applied Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning.”
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“Furthermore, adding summary commands can increase the effectiveness of VR in science learning (Parong & Mayer, 2018).”
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“Conversely, arguments by Clark and Salomon (1986), Clark (1994), Sung and Mayer (2013) and Parong and Mayer (2018) suggest that media selections are incidental to learning, and only instruction methods are influential in certain core learning outcomes, such as achievement and motivation.”
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“Additionally, there is a lack of comprehensive research on how VR educational games can be effectively integrated into existing middle school curricula (Parong & Mayer, 2018).”
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The Cognitive Cost of Immersion: Experimental Evidence from VR-Based Technical Training
Grecu, V., Petruse, R. E., Chiliban, M.-B., & Tâlvan, E.-T. (2025) · Applied Sciences · doi:10.3390/app152312534 · Cited by 10
He, H., Xu, X., Li, S. E., Bueno-Vesga, J. A., Duan, Y., & Gu, Y. (2026) · International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education · doi:10.1186/s41239-026-00587-9 · Cited by 9
Hwang, A. H., Kim, J., Lobo, S. N., Shu, Y., & Won, A. S. (2022) · Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction · doi:10.1145/3555169 · Cited by 7
“However, these factors have not always translated to enhanced learning performance [4, 39, 49, 53].”
BackgroundInfluence of Immersive Virtual Reality on Cognitive and Affective Learning Goals
Finken, J., & Wölfel, M. (2022) · Lecture notes in networks and systems · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-21569-8_48 · Cited by 8
Bali, C., Matuz-Budai, T., Arató, N., Lábadi, B., & Zsido, A. N. (2023) · Heliyon · doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e12899 · Cited by 11
“This mismatch may interrupt the integration of information coming through different modalities, which increases the cognitive load and decrease the quality of encoding – reflected in recall performance [28,30,44,63].”
BackgroundThe Applications of Interface Design and User Experience in Virtual Reality
Xie, H. (2023) · Highlights in Science Engineering and Technology · doi:10.54097/hset.v44i.7318 · Cited by 7
Kuvar, V., Bailenson, J. N., & Mills, C. (2023) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2023.104959 · Cited by 7
Thinking through the tool: collaborative archaeological bodywork in immersive virtual reality
Morrow, G. S., & Wernke, S. A. (2023) · Virtual Archaeology Review · doi:10.4995/var.2024.19806 · Cited by 10
“…in learning outcomes (Alfaro, Rivera, Luna-Urquizo, & Fialho, 2019), training (Burin, Liu, Yamaya, & Kawashima, 2020; Frederiksen, Sørensen, Konge, Svendsen, Nobel-Jørgensen, Bjerrum & Andersen, 2020; Parong & Mayer, 2020; Varela-Aldás, Palacios-Navarro, Amariglio, & García-Magariño, 2020),…”
Assessing the utility of a virtual reality arson crime scene investigation simulation
Halford, E., Keningale, P., Hussain, A. T., & Condon, C. (2024) · Policing A Journal of Policy and Practice · doi:10.1093/police/paae122 · Cited by 8
The Past, Present, and Future of Virtual Reality in Higher Education
Yoo, J., & Brownlee, E. A. (2020) · Advances in higher education and professional development book series · doi:10.4018/978-1-7998-1306-4.ch024 · Cited by 7
Why do Generative Learning Strategy Improve Memory in VR? — Based on ICALM
Yang, W., & Wang, X. (2021) · International Journal of Information and Education Technology · doi:10.18178/ijiet.2021.11.12.1576 · Cited by 7
“For example, Parong stressed that the immediate learning effect of PPT learners was significantly better than that of VR learners in biology [5]; Leder highlight that compared with PowerPoint teaching, the application of VR did not significantly improve the learning effect of learners in safety training teaching [6];…”
BackgroundUse of Virtual Reality in Psychology
Hakim, A., & Hammad, S. (2022) · Lecture notes in networks and systems · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-11432-8_21 · Cited by 10
A phenomenological approach to virtual reality in psychiatry education
Pedersen, K. S., & Musaeus, P. (2023) · Frontiers in Virtual Reality · doi:10.3389/frvir.2023.1259263 · Cited by 7
Denisart, L., Troncoso, J. F., Loup‐Escande, É., & Franco, A. A. (2024) · Batteries & Supercaps · doi:10.1002/batt.202400042 · Cited by 6
From spatial to platial - the role and future of immersive technologies in the spatial sciences
Klippel, A. (2020) · Journal of Spatial Information Science · doi:10.5311/josis.2020.21.722 · Cited by 7
“We have diverging empirical studies that have shown the advantages and disadvantages of immersive experiences [16, 34, 39, 46].”
BackgroundKao, D., Joshi, A., Mousas, C., Peddireddy, A., Gopi, A. K., Li, J., Springer, J., McGowan, B. S., & Reed, J. B. (2021) · International Conference on the Foundations of Digital Games (FDG) · doi:10.1145/3472538.3472552 · Cited by 7
“To this effect, many educational video games have successfully taught essential concepts in the field of computer science [37, 48], biology [49], pharmacy [41], physical health [16], mental health [62], and areas like formal interview preparation [42].”
BackgroundLin, H.-T., Tsai, H., Li, Y.-I., & Hu, W.-P. (2022) · BMC Medical Education · doi:10.1186/s12909-022-03109-z · Cited by 7
“In the past study, applying only VR in teaching increased student motivation and interest, but the test scores of the VR group were lower than those of students in the slideshow teaching group [32].”
ResultOverview of Visuospatial Processing for Education in Health and Natural Sciences
Castro-Alonso, J. C. (2019) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-20969-8_1 · Cited by 9
Mental Workload Evaluation of Virtual Object Manipulation on WebVR: An EEG Study
Sun, W., Huang, M., Yang, R., Han, J., & Yue, Y. (2021) · Conference on Human System Interactions · doi:10.1109/hsi52170.2021.9538783 · Cited by 7
Astatke, M., Weng, C., Yohannes, A., Isaac, M. M., & Liou, W.-K. (2024) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-024-10381-x · Cited by 6
“Concerning the learning achievement test, the results of this study align with earlier studies showing that IVR improves academic performance (Parong & Mayer, 2018; Shi et al., 2019).”
Hindman, S., King, R., & Pereira, A. (2024) · Computers in Human Behavior Reports · doi:10.1016/j.chbr.2024.100500 · Cited by 8
Mahande, R. D., Abdal, N. M., Nasir, N., & Rahmi, U. (2025) · Journal of Applied Research in Higher Education · doi:10.1108/jarhe-12-2024-0713 · Cited by 6
Yensathit, Y., Ariya, P., Intawong, K., & Puritat, K. (2025) · Social Sciences & Humanities Open · doi:10.1016/j.ssaho.2025.101630 · Cited by 11
Guerra-Tamez, C. R. (2025) · Frontiers in Education · doi:10.3389/feduc.2025.1618968 · Cited by 6
Saran, M. (2025) · PeerJ Computer Science · doi:10.7717/peerj-cs.3168 · Cited by 11
“VR in education has attracted signi fi cant interest due to its potential to provide immersive and interactive experiences that are unattainable with traditional methods ( Bailenson, 2018 ; Parong & Mayer, 2018 ; Kamel Boulos, Hetherington & Wheeler, 2008 ; Dalgarno & Lee, 2010 ).”
Betancur-Chicué, V., & Muñoz-Repiso, A. G.-V. (2023) · Education in the Knowledge Society (EKS) · doi:10.14201/eks.30882 · Cited by 5
Artificial Intelligence and Immersive Technologies in Higher Pedagogical Education
Стародубцев, В. А., & Нерадовская, О. Р. (2024) · Open Education · doi:10.21686/1818-4243-2024-2-13-23 · Cited by 6
Adoption of immersive-virtual reality as an intrinsically motivating learning tool in parasitology
Dekker, E., Whitburn, D., & Preston, S. (2024) · Virtual Reality · doi:10.1007/s10055-024-01016-w · Cited by 6
“Parong and Mayer (2018 & 2021) showed that students performed worst then the PowerPoint alternative when exposed to VLE.”
Modern Digital and Technological Educational Methods
Stoumpos, A. I., & Stoumpou, R. I. (2025) · Trends in Higher Education · doi:10.3390/higheredu4020025 · Cited by 14
“Notably, research by Parong and Mayer (2018) showed that the use of VR in teaching science subjects led to superior understanding of the material compared to traditional teaching methods [67].”
Hetherington, L., Brandt, H., Chappell, K. A., Dillon, J. S., & Malmierca, M. J. R. (2025) · Environmental Education Research · doi:10.1080/13504622.2025.2512974 · Cited by 7
“The projects also employed other digital tools common in classrooms such as ocean-based games and apps that could be accessed using ipads, video and mentimeter displayed on interactive whiteboards, which we refer to in this paper as ‘other digital technologies’.”
Review of Effects of the Virtual Reality in Education
Alrababah, Z., & Shorman, S. M. (2021) · Studies in computational intelligence · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-73057-4_33 · Cited by 6
Using Virtual Reality for Movement System Examination in a Doctor of Physical Therapy Curriculum
Judd, D. L., Kelly, B., & Corral, J. (2021) · Journal of Physical Therapy Education · doi:10.1097/jte.0000000000000204 · Cited by 6
Metadata
- Authors
- Parong, J., & Mayer, R. E.
- Affiliations
- University of California, Santa Barbara (US)
- Venue
- Journal of Educational Psychology
- Published
- 2018-08
- Volume
- 110
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 785-797
- ISSN
- 0022-0663 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-2176
- OpenAlex
- W2792133971
- Semantic Scholar
- dde037402363fde92e5f61c3c1d7f25620e1ef3d
- Cited by
- 1,088
- References
- 70
- Citations by year
- 2026: 202 · 2025: 180 · 2024: 154 · 2023: 147 · 2022: 140 · 2021: 125 · 2020: 93 · 2019: 35 · 2018: 11
- FWCI
- 65.71
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Locations
- Journal of Educational Psychology (publishedVersion, other-oa)
- Funders
- Office of Naval Research (N000141612046)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Human-Computer Interaction › Virtual Reality Applications and Impacts
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Social Sciences › Education › Online and Blended Learning
- Keywords
- immersive virtual reality, science learning, generative learning strategy, cognitive theory of multimedia learning, interest theory, student motivation, student engagement, biology education, teaching effectiveness
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