The DOI matches its Crossref record; 71 of the 71 references it cites were found in a registry or an index.
Learning science in immersive virtual reality.
Open accessAbstract
The goals of the study were (a) to compare the instructional effectiveness of immersive virtual reality (VR) versus a desktop slideshow as media for teaching scientific knowledge, and (b) to examine the efficacy of adding a generative learning strategy to a VR lesson. In Experiment 1, college students viewed a biology lesson about how the human body works either in immersive VR or via a self-directed PowerPoint slideshow on a desktop computer. Based on interest theory, it was predicted that students who learned in immersive VR would report more positive ratings of interest and motivation and would score higher on a posttest covering material in the lesson. In contrast, based on the cognitive theory of multimedia learning, it was predicted that students who learned with a well-designed slideshow would score higher on a posttest, although they might not report higher levels of interest and motivation. The results showed that students who viewed the slideshow performed significantly better on the posttest than the VR group, but reported lower motivation, interest, and engagement ratings. In Experiment 2, students either viewed a segmented VR lesson and produced a written summary after each segment or viewed the original, continuous VR lesson as in Experiment 1. Students who summarized the lesson after each segment performed significantly better on the posttest and the groups did not differ on reported interest, engagement, and motivation. These results support the cognitive theory of multimedia learning and demonstrate the value of generative learning strategies in immersive VR environments. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved)
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“Several studies have argued that VR simulations result in a signi fi cant increase in self-e ffi cacy by allowing students to actively interact with the virtual environment (Makransky et al., 2016; Parong & Mayer, 2018; Thisgaard & Makransky, 2017; Thompson & Dass, 2000).”
From Investigating the effect of pre-training when learning through immersive virtual reality and video: A media and methods experiment (2019) · cites this paper as Parong & Mayer, 2018
In the citing paper
“Previous literature has found that high-immersion media can result in more extraneous cognitive load processing, which results in less learning (e.g. Makransky et al., 2019b; Parong & Mayer, 2018).”
From Investigating the effect of pre-training when learning through immersive virtual reality and video: A media and methods experiment (2019) · cites this paper as Parong & Mayer, 2018
In the citing paper
“In a second experiment, they compared two groups using a VR simulation and found that, if given time to re fl ect between segments, scores increased on both factual ( d =1.14) and conceptual questions ( d =0.66).”
From Investigating the effect of pre-training when learning through immersive virtual reality and video: A media and methods experiment (2019) · cites this paper as Parong and Mayer (2018)
In the citing paper
“The authors argue that generative learning strategies such as summarizing can aid learning and limit cognitive load, while maintaining the motivational value of immersive VR learning environments.”
From Investigating the effect of pre-training when learning through immersive virtual reality and video: A media and methods experiment (2019) · cites this paper as Parong and Mayer (2018)
In the citing paper
“Parong and Mayer (2018) compared a VR simulation to a slideshow presentation, and found that the slideshow group performed better on factual questions ( d =1.12), but found no di ff erence on conceptual questions.”
From Investigating the effect of pre-training when learning through immersive virtual reality and video: A media and methods experiment (2019) · cites this paper as Parong and Mayer (2018)
In the citing paper
“The empirical articles that have investigated affective outcomes of educational interventions in IVR compared to less immersive media have generally been consistent in finding higher levels of presence (e.g., Buttussi and Chittaro 2018;Makransky and Lilleholt 2018;Makransky et al. 2019b;Parong and Mayer 2018), and interest (Makransky et al. 2020c;Parong and Mayer 2018).”
From The Cognitive Affective Model of Immersive Learning (CAMIL): a Theoretical Research-Based Model of Learning in Immersive Virtual Reality (2021) · cites this paper as Parong and Mayer 2018
In the citing paper
“Initial research suggests that the generative learning strategy of summarization improves factual and conceptual knowledge when applied within an IVR science simulation (Parong and Mayer 2018).”
From The Cognitive Affective Model of Immersive Learning (CAMIL): a Theoretical Research-Based Model of Learning in Immersive Virtual Reality (2021) · cites this paper as Parong and Mayer 2018
In the citing paper
“Parong and Mayer (2018) found that an immersive VR lesson was less effective than a PowerPoint lesson for acquiring factual knowledge, but they found no significant difference in conceptual knowledge acquisition.”
From The Cognitive Affective Model of Immersive Learning (CAMIL): a Theoretical Research-Based Model of Learning in Immersive Virtual Reality (2021) · cites this paper as Parong and Mayer 2018
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“In VR’s defence, we have found and agreed with studies that realise these drawbacks and suggest to simplify the virtual environment [71], reduce or completely eliminate supplementary devices such as haptic devices [72], and to carefully design the virtual environment inspired by the learning…”
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Petersen, G. B., Klingenberg, S., Mayer, R. E., & Makransky, G. (2020) · British Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.1111/bjet.12991 · Cited by 269
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“(2021), Parong and Mayer (2018), and Checa and Bustillo (2020) however disagree that such technologies can provide immersive experiences to learners.”
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“• Overall learning strategy: Parong and Mayer [54] have shown that generative learning schemes, encouraging learners to actively engage with the material, improves performance; augmented cues in the virtual environment can control learner engagement with the simulation.”
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“…immersion ranges from none to low, (Advisory Group on Computer Graphics, 1996), users interact with a 3D environment displayed on a screen through an interface (mouse, touchscreen, touchpad, or handheld control) while seated in front of a computer (Parong & Mayer, 2018; Robertson et al., 1993).”
The mediating role of presence differs across types of spatial learning in immersive technologies
Parong, J. A., Pollard, K. A., Files, B. T., Oiknine, A. H., Sinatra, A. M., Moss, J. D., Passaro, A. D., & Khooshabeh, P. (2020) · Computers in Human Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.chb.2020.106290 · Cited by 102
Self-citationVergara, D., Extremera, J., Rubio, M. P., & Dávila, L. P. (2019) · Applied Sciences · doi:10.3390/app9214625 · Cited by 100
“Indeed, more recent studies [37] have confirmed that when students use VR in a learning setting, they are more engaged and are more motivated compared to when they use conventional tools such as slide presentations via PowerPoint.”
BackgroundUsing Extended Reality in Flight Simulators: A Literature Review
Cross, J. I., Boag-Hodgson, C. C., Ryley, T. J., Mavin, T. J., & Potter, L. E. (2022) · IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics · doi:10.1109/tvcg.2022.3173921 · Cited by 87
“[56] Studies the instructional effectiveness of VR and examines the efficacy of adding a generative learning strategy to a VR lesson.”
BackgroundTai, K., Hong, J., Tsai, C.-R., Lin, C.-Z., & Hung, Y.-H. (2022) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2022.104458 · Cited by 91
Mallek, F., Mazhar, T., Shah, S. F. A., Ghadi, Y. Y., & Hamam, H. (2024) · PeerJ Computer Science · doi:10.7717/peerj-cs.2000 · Cited by 119
“Parong & Mayer (2018) examined the effectiveness of VR in teaching physics concepts to secondary school students.”
BackgroundImmersive virtual reality for increasing presence and empathy
Han, I., Shin, H. S., Ko, Y., & Shin, W. S. (2022) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1111/jcal.12669 · Cited by 101
Unintended consequences of spatial presence on learning in virtual reality
Ahn, S. J., Nowak, K. L., & Bailenson, J. N. (2022) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2022.104532 · Cited by 85
Elme, L., Jørgensen, M. L. M., Dandanell, G., Mottelson, A., & Makransky, G. (2022) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-022-10139-3 · Cited by 100
“…principle currently under scrutiny was selected based on literature that suggests that it is important to include scaffolding strategies when implementing IVR based science lessons (e.g., Klingenberg et al., 2020; Makransky & Petersen, 2021; Parong & Mayer, 2018, 2020; Zhao et al, 2020).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialGuan, J., Wang, L.-H., Qu, C. H. E. N., Jin, K., & Hwang, G. (2021) · Interactive Learning Environments · doi:10.1080/10494820.2021.1871631 · Cited by 93
“It was indicated that students with VR were more motivated, interested, and engaged in learning, and more critical in their thinking (Huang et al., 2016; Parong & Mayer, 2018; Tarng et al., 2017).”
BackgroundAn evaluation model to assess the communication effects of intangible cultural heritage
Xue, K., Li, Y., & Meng, X. (2019) · Journal of Cultural Heritage · doi:10.1016/j.culher.2019.05.021 · Cited by 92
Where is the learning in mobile technologies for learning?
Mayer, R. E. (2019) · Contemporary Educational Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.cedpsych.2019.101824 · Cited by 101
Self-citationHoluša, V., Vaněk, M., Beneš, F., Švub, J., & Staša, P. (2023) · Sustainability · doi:10.3390/su151712886 · Cited by 102
Training in virtual reality enables learning of a complex sports movement
Pastel, S., Petri, K., Chen, C. H., Cáceres, A. M. W., Stirnatis, M., Nübel, C., Schlotter, L., & Witte, K. (2022) · Virtual Reality · doi:10.1007/s10055-022-00679-7 · Cited by 81
“2019; Parong and Mayer 2018).”
Makransky, G., & Klingenberg, S. (2022) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1111/jcal.12670 · Cited by 93
“…of VR-based learning and training interventions is related to how the VR simulations are designed (e.g., Baceviciute et al., 2021,c; Bower & Jong, 2020; Cavalcanti et al., 2021; Makransky, Borre-Gude, & Mayer, 2019; Makransky & Petersen, 2021; Parong & Mayer, 2018; Petersen et al., 2020, 2022).”
BackgroundKim, N. J., Vicentini, C. R., & Belland, B. R. (2021) · International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education · doi:10.1007/s10763-020-10145-y · Cited by 92
Immersive Anatomy Atlas: Learning Factual Medical Knowledge in a Virtual Reality Environment
Gloy, K., Weyhe, P., Nerenz, E., Kaluschke, M., Uslar, V., Zachmann, G., & Weyhe, D. (2021) · Anatomical Sciences Education · doi:10.1002/ase.2095 · Cited by 87
“Immersive VR is associated with higher ratings for interest and motivation in students (Parong and Mayer, 2018).”
BackgroundLearning experience design with immersive virtual reality in physics education
Georgiou, Y., Tsivitanidou, O., & Ioannou, A. (2021) · Educational Technology Research and Development · doi:10.1007/s11423-021-10055-y · Cited by 110
“…benefits when using immersive VR over low-immersion media and traditional instruction delivery (e.g., Green-wald et al., 2018; Madden et al., 2018) or they have even reported lower learning gains for the students who used immersive VR environments (Parong & Mayer, 2018; Makransky et al., 2019).”
BackgroundLee, S. W., Hsu, Y.-T., & Cheng, K. (2022) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2022.104456 · Cited by 89
Immersive procedural training in virtual reality: A systematic literature review
Jongbloed, J., Chaker, R., & Lavoué, É. (2024) · Computers & Education · doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2024.105124 · Cited by 113
“Originally developed to understand less immersive multimedia learning, the Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning (CTML; Mayer, 2021) has been adapted and applied to understand learning in VR (Mayer et al., 2023; Parong, 2021; Parong & Mayer, 2018).”
Sun, J. C., Ye, S.-L., Yu, S., & Chiu, T. K. F. (2022) · Journal of Science Education and Technology · doi:10.1007/s10956-022-10001-4 · Cited by 95
“Parong and Mayer (2018) suggested that immersive VR can improve the stimulation of learning motivation, interest, and engagement among students, compared with traditional media.”
BackgroundInfluentialA Systematic Review of Virtual Reality Features for Skill Training
Tusher, H. M., Mallam, S., & Nazir, S. (2024) · Technology Knowledge and Learning · doi:10.1007/s10758-023-09713-2 · Cited by 100
“An important aspect of VR training is that sometimes it does not support actual learning as much as it induces enjoyment, motivation, or engagement (Makransky et al., 2019; Parong & Mayer, 2018; Zhao et al., 2022).”
Wang, Q., & Li, Y. (2024) · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · doi:10.1111/jcal.12949 · Cited by 104
Pande, P., Thit, A., Sørensen, A. E., Mojsoska, B., Moeller, M. E., & Jepsen, P. M. (2021) · Research in Learning Technology · doi:10.25304/rlt.v29.2482 · Cited by 97
“Several other studies have demonstrated positive effects of iVR on most affective aspects of learning regardless of: iVR’s success in supporting actual content or conceptual learning (Garcia-Bonete, Jensen, and Katona 2019; Madden et al. 2020; Parong and Mayer 2018; Tan and Waugh 2013), the implementation-related logi…”
BackgroundInfluentialAre we ready for virtual reality in K–12 classrooms?
Araiza-Alba, P., Keane, T., & Kaufman, J. (2022) · Technology Pedagogy and Education · doi:10.1080/1475939x.2022.2033307 · Cited by 92
“This increase in sensory and extraneous information can disrupt the process of organising the material, as well as prime the learner to integrate the content with prior knowledge in an inappropriate manner (Parong & Mayer, 2018).”
BackgroundSeifan, M., Robertson, N., & Berenjian, A. (2020) · Education for Chemical Engineers · doi:10.1016/j.ece.2020.07.006 · Cited by 76
Game‐based learning has good chemistry with chemistry education: A three‐level meta‐analysis
Hu, Y., Gallagher, T. J., Wouters, P., van der Schaaf, M. F., & Kester, L. (2022) · Journal of Research in Science Teaching · doi:10.1002/tea.21765 · Cited by 109
Using immersive virtual reality to support designing skills in vocational education
Kim, K. G., Oertel, C., Dobricki, M., Olsen, J. K., Coppi, A. E., Cattáneo, A., & Dillenbourg, P. (2020) · British Journal of Educational Technology · doi:10.1111/bjet.13026 · Cited by 73
Pedagogical Agents in Educational VR: An in the Wild Study
Petersen, G. B., Mottelson, A., & Makransky, G. (2021) · CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems · doi:10.1145/3411764.3445760 · Cited by 83
“Previous research points to the benefits of embodiment, which led Mayer to conclude that when pedagogical agents display human-like gesturing, movement, facial expressions, etc. as opposed to appearing static, it leads to better learning.”
BackgroundInfluentialLo, S., & Tsai, H.-H. (2022) · Sensors · doi:10.3390/s22218329 · Cited by 72
“Parong and Mayer, 2018 [27] Immersion 55 college students, ages 18–30 VR, PPT Slides HMD/Desktop PPT Slides No”
Background
Metadata
- Authors
- Parong, J., & Mayer, R. E.
- Affiliations
- University of California, Santa Barbara (US)
- Venue
- Journal of Educational Psychology
- Published
- 2018-08
- Volume
- 110
- Issue
- 6
- Pages
- 785-797
- ISSN
- 0022-0663 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-2176
- OpenAlex
- W2792133971
- Semantic Scholar
- dde037402363fde92e5f61c3c1d7f25620e1ef3d
- Cited by
- 1,088
- References
- 70
- Citations by year
- 2026: 202 · 2025: 180 · 2024: 154 · 2023: 147 · 2022: 140 · 2021: 125 · 2020: 93 · 2019: 35 · 2018: 11
- FWCI
- 65.71
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- hybrid
- doi.org
- Locations
- Journal of Educational Psychology (publishedVersion, other-oa)
- Funders
- Office of Naval Research (N000141612046)
- Topics
- Physical Sciences › Computer Science › Human-Computer Interaction › Virtual Reality Applications and Impacts
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Experimental and Cognitive Psychology › Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes
- Social Sciences › Education › Online and Blended Learning
- Keywords
- immersive virtual reality, science learning, generative learning strategy, cognitive theory of multimedia learning, interest theory, student motivation, student engagement, biology education, teaching effectiveness
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