The DOI matches its Crossref record; 104 of the 106 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 4 of the 37 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Spanking and child outcomes: Old controversies and new meta-analyses.
Open accessAbstract
Whether spanking is helpful or harmful to children continues to be the source of considerable debate among both researchers and the public. This article addresses 2 persistent issues, namely whether effect sizes for spanking are distinct from those for physical abuse, and whether effect sizes for spanking are robust to study design differences. Meta-analyses focused specifically on spanking were conducted on a total of 111 unique effect sizes representing 160,927 children. Thirteen of 17 mean effect sizes were significantly different from zero and all indicated a link between spanking and increased risk for detrimental child outcomes. Effect sizes did not substantially differ between spanking and physical abuse or by study design characteristics. (PsycINFO Database Record
Overview
Integrity signals
Registry
Cites
Statistics
Verification
Claims the paper makes
28 Own result · 21 Own interpretation · 10 No full text of the sources · 7 Own method · 6 Sources not found · 4 Not checked yet · 3 No basis given · 2 Supported · 1 Partly supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“A series of cross-lagged studies (Berlin et al., 2009; Gershoff, Lansford, Sexton, Davis-Kean, & Sameroff, 2012; McLeod, Kruttschnitt, & Dornfeld, 1994; Sheehan & Watson, 2008) has demonstrated that spanking predicts changes in children’s behavior, over and above their initial levels and the child effect of early problem behavior on later spanking.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Limitations
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Berlin et al., 2009 source
The Results (page unavailable) describe cross-lagged models that estimated spanking-to-child-outcome paths alongside child-behavior-to-later-spanking paths. They report that spanking at age 1 predicted aggressive behavior problems at age 2, while aggressive behavior problems at age 2 did not predict spanking at age 3. The finding is specific to these low-income toddlers and these ages; other spanking-to-aggression paths were not significant. (LLM, conf=0.88)
- Supportedcites Gershoff et al., 2012 source
The Results section describes a cross-lagged model that tests whether kindergarten spanking predicts third-grade externalizing behavior while controlling for initial behavior and the reverse path from early externalizing behavior to later spanking. The Abstract reports that early spanking predicted increases in externalizing behavior, while early externalizing behavior predicted more spanking. (LLM, conf=0.93)
- Not matchedcites McLeod et al., 1994
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The remaining four meta-analyses were not significantly different from zero.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Results > Main Meta-Analyses
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Meta-analyses focused specifically on spanking were conducted on a total of 111 unique effect sizes representing 160,927 children.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Abstract
plainn = 160,927- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thirteen of 17 mean effect sizes were significantly different from zero and all indicated a link between spanking and increased risk for detrimental child outcomes.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Abstract
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Only 75 studies met all four criteria and were retained for the meta-analyses.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Method > Coding of Studies for Inclusion or Exclusion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Longitudinal effect sizes of the bivariate links between spanking and later child outcomes do not rule out the potential for a child elicitation effect; however, so few studies report a coefficient that controls only for initial child behavior (and not for a range of other covariates) that we are unable to meta-analyze them.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Remaining Concerns About the Research on Spanking and Child Outcomes > Spanking Has Only Been Linked With Negative Child Outcomes in Cross-Sectional or Methodologically Weak Studies
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Effect sizes did not substantially differ between spanking and physical abuse or by study design characteristics.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Abstract
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The magnitude of the mean effect size for spanking was 65% of the magnitude of the mean effect size for physical abuse.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Results > Moderator Analyses Comparing Spanking With Physical Abuse
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The 13 statistically significant mean effect sizes ranged in size from .15 to .64.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Results > Main Meta-Analyses
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“None of the tests were significant, indicating that the risk of publication bias for any of our mean effect sizes is small.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Results > Tests for Publication Bias
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- It may state two separate claims as one. 40
- Probably not a substantial claim. 8
- The quote only partly states this claim. 1
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“analysis of data from a national randomized controlled trial of the federal Head Start program for low income children found that parents in the program significantly reduced their spanking, which was in turn linked with decreases in child aggression over time (Gershoff, Ansari, Purtell, & Sexton, 2016).”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Limitations
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Gershoff, Ansari, Purtell, & Sexton, 2016 source
The Results report a significant reduction in spanking associated with Head Start participation. The Discussion states that reduced spanking predicted reduced child aggression over time. The paper also cautions that the indirect effect of Head Start on aggression through spanking was not statistically significant; the claim does not say that it was. (LLM, conf=0.92)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Both behaviors involve parents intentionally hitting (and hurting) children, albeit to different degrees (Gershoff, 2013)”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Spanking Alone Is Associated With Detrimental Outcomes, but in Similar Ways to Physical Abuse
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Gershoff, 2013 source
The section “Spanking Is Linked With Numerous Adverse Side Effects” states that spanking and physical abuse both involve hitting and purposefully hurting children. It says the difference is often one of degree—such as duration or force—rather than intent. (LLM, conf=0.95)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Supported
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The weighted mean effect size for spanking was d = .25, while for physical abuse it was d = .38. Both were significantly different from zero and both were positive in sign”
- Also stated in: § Spanking Alone Is Associated With Detrimental Outcomes, but in Similar Ways to Physical Abuse · plain
“Spanking in these studies was significantly associated with detrimental outcomes with an effect size d = .25, while the mean effect size for physical abuse for these studies was significant and d = .38”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Results > Moderator Analyses Comparing Spanking With Physical Abuse
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § Spanking Alone Is Associated With Detrimental Outcomes, but in Similar Ways to Physical Abuse · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The largest effect size was for physical abuse; the more children are spanked, the greater the risk that they will be physically abused by their parents.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Spanking Is Associated With Higher Risk for Detrimental Outcomes
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In childhood, parental use of spanking was associated with low moral internalization, aggression, antisocial behavior, externalizing behavior problems, internalizing behavior problems, mental health problems, negative parent–child relationships, impaired cognitive ability, low self-esteem, and risk of physical abuse from parents.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Results > Main Meta-Analyses
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Three outcomes in childhood were not significantly associated with spanking in the meta-analyses: immediate defiance, child alcohol or substance abuse, and low-self regulation.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Spanking Is Associated With Higher Risk for Detrimental Outcomes
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In adulthood, prior experiences of parental use of spanking were significantly associated with adult antisocial behavior, adult mental health problems, and with positive attitudes about spanking.”
- Also stated in: § Spanking Is Associated With Higher Risk for Detrimental Outcomes · plain
“Three of the four adult outcomes were significantly associated with a history of spanking from parents: adult antisocial behavior, adult mental health problems, and adult support for physical punishment.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Results > Main Meta-Analyses
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § Spanking Is Associated With Higher Risk for Detrimental Outcomes · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“All of the comparisons were nonsignificant, indicating that the effect sizes did not vary by study characteristic.”
- Also stated in: § Moderator Analyses by Study Characteristics · plain
“Average effect sizes also did not significantly vary based on how spanking was measured, how it was indexed, whether the raters of spanking and outcome were independent, the time period over which spanking was measured, the country of the study, or the age group of the children studied.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Results > Moderator Analyses by Study Characteristics
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § Moderator Analyses by Study Characteristics · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“An important observation about the meta-analyses is that the individual studies are highly consistent: 71% of all of the effect sizes, and 99% of the significant effect sizes, indicated a significant association between parental spanking and detrimental child outcomes.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Spanking Is Associated With Higher Risk for Detrimental Outcomes
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Of the 111 individual effect sizes, 102 were in the direction of a detrimental outcome with 78 of these statistically significant. In contrast, nine of the effect sizes were in the direction of a beneficial outcome but only one (Tennant, Detels, & Clark, 1975) was statistically different from zero.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Results > Main Meta-Analyses
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Tennant, Detels, & Clark, 1975 source
plaincorrelationaln = 111- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The overall mean weighted effect size across all of the 111 study-level effect sizes was d = .33, with a 95% confidence interval of .29 to .38; this mean effect was statistically different from zero, Z = 14.84, p < .001.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Results > Main Meta-Analyses
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Spanking was significantly associated with 13 of the 17 outcomes examined. In each case, spanking was associated with a greater likelihood of detrimental child outcomes.”
- Also stated in: § Spanking Is Associated With Higher Risk for Detrimental Outcomes · plain
“Thirteen of the 17 child outcomes examined were found to be significantly associated with parents’ use of spanking.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Results > Main Meta-Analyses
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § Spanking Is Associated With Higher Risk for Detrimental Outcomes · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A total of 111 unique effect sizes were derived from data representing 204,410 child measurement occasions; these studies included data from a total of 160,927 unique children.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Results > Main Meta-Analyses
plainn = 160,927- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Two of the studies contributed more than one effect size, yielding a total of 10 pairs of effect sizes for spanking and physical abuse.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Results > Moderator Analyses Comparing Spanking With Physical Abuse
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thirteen of 17 mean effect sizes were significantly different from zero and all indicated a link between spanking and increased risk for detrimental child outcomes.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Abstract
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
The quote only partly states this claim.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These analyses did not find any support for the contentions that spanking is only associated with detrimental outcomes when it is combined with abusive methods or that spanking is only associated with such outcomes in methodologically weak studies.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Conclusion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“While it was indeed true that the majority of studies (70%) were cross-sectional or retrospective in nature, the effect sizes for the longitudinal and experimental studies were not significantly different from the effect sizes for the cross-sectional studies (see Table 4).”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Spanking Effect Sizes Are Similar Across Study Characteristics
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The mean effect size across all studies, d = .33, was smaller than the overall mean effect size reported by Gershoff (2002), d = .40, but still statistically significant.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Spanking Alone Is Associated With Detrimental Outcomes, but in Similar Ways to Physical Abuse
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Gershoff (2002) source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The meta-analyses presented here found no evidence that spanking is associated with improved child behavior and rather found spanking to be associated with increased risk of 13 detrimental outcomes.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Conclusion
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, both effect sizes are significant and positive, indicating that both are associated with more undesirable child outcomes.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Remaining Concerns About the Research on Spanking and Child Outcomes > Spanking Has Been Confounded With Harsher Forms of Physical Punishment
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, while not a perfect solution, longitudinal bivariate coefficients are decidedly stronger methodologically than within-time coefficients.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Remaining Concerns About the Research on Spanking and Child Outcomes > Spanking Has Only Been Linked With Negative Child Outcomes in Cross-Sectional or Methodologically Weak Studies
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“All study-level effect sizes were calculated independently by each of the authors; for all effect sizes, agreement was achieved to at least the third decimal place.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Method > Coding of Effect Sizes
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The failure to reach significance for immediate defiance appears to result from the small n (150), while for child alcohol or substance abuse and low self-regulation the cause appears to be heterogeneity in effect sizes.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Spanking Is Associated With Higher Risk for Detrimental Outcomes
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Each of these four meta-analyses included a different set of articles and came to varied conclusions, namely that physical punishment is largely ineffective and harmful (Gershoff, 2002), that physical punishment is effective under certain circumstances (Larzelere & Kuhn, 2005), and that physical punishment is linked with children’s cognitive, emotional, and behavioral problems but only modestly (F”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Abstract
What the sources say
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the second step of coding, each of these 558 potential studies was coded independently by each of the authors. Any disagreements in coding were resolved through follow-up discussion.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Method > Coding of Studies for Inclusion or Exclusion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The finding that spanking was not linked with immediate defiance was unexpected given the opposite findings in the Gershoff (2002) meta-analyses.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Spanking Is Associated With Higher Risk for Detrimental Outcomes
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Gershoff (2002) source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“When discrepancies occurred in effect size calculations, the discrepancy was discussed, and then each author independently recalculated the effect size. This process was repeated, if necessary, until consensus was achieved.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Method > Coding of Effect Sizes
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“While this is clearly a beneficial outcome, the uniqueness of the sample limits the generalizability of this finding and may explain why this study is an outlier”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Spanking Is Associated With Higher Risk for Detrimental Outcomes
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“Taken together, these meta-analyses provide evidence that physical punishment is associated with negative child outcomes, particularly when the outcomes are divided into finer-grained categories (Ferguson, 2013; Gershoff, 2002) rather than when they are grouped into broad categories (Paolucci & Violato, 2004), and that harsher methods of physical punishment are more strongly associated with”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Previous Meta-Analyses of Physical Punishment and Spanking
What the sources say
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The only study that found a significant association with a beneficial outcome, Tennant, Detels, and Clark (1975), had a unique sample (U.S. Army soldiers stationed in West Germany in 1971 and 1972, most of whom were White [77%]), and found that soldiers who recalled being spanked were less likely to report using amphetamines or opiates.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Spanking Is Associated With Higher Risk for Detrimental Outcomes
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Tennant, Detels, & Clark (1975) source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The circumstances of experimentally manipulated spanking thus are likely to be unusual, leading to concern that experiments with parental spanking may suffer from a lack of external validity.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Remaining Concerns About the Research on Spanking and Child Outcomes > Spanking Has Only Been Linked With Negative Child Outcomes in Cross-Sectional or Methodologically Weak Studies
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, parents’ use of spanking is not easily or ethically studied through an experimental design, as children cannot be randomly assigned to parents with varying predispositions to spank, nor can parents typically be randomly assigned to spank or not spank.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Remaining Concerns About the Research on Spanking and Child Outcomes > Spanking Has Only Been Linked With Negative Child Outcomes in Cross-Sectional or Methodologically Weak Studies
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Two primary concerns that have been raised about past meta-analyses are that spanking has been confounded with potentially abusive parenting behaviors in some studies and that spanking has only been linked with detrimental outcomes in methodologically weak studies (Baumrind, Larzelere, & Cowan, 2002; Ferguson, 2013; Larzelere & Kuhn, 2005).”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Abstract
What the sources say
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“None of these studies using advanced statistical methods found evidence that the pathway is entirely one of selection or child elicitation, or that spanking predicts improvements in children’s behavior over time”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Limitations
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the association only indicates that milder and more severe corporal punishment are linked, and that the former may increase the risk that children will also be physically abused.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Spanking Alone Is Associated With Detrimental Outcomes, but in Similar Ways to Physical Abuse
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This finding indicates that methodologically stronger studies did not find significantly smaller effect sizes than methodologically weaker studies, lending more confidence to the findings from the main meta-analyses that include both.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Spanking Effect Sizes Are Similar Across Study Characteristics
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“given that a correlational association is a necessary condition for a causal relationship (Shadish et al., 2001), we can conclude that the data are consistent with a conclusion that spanking is associated with undesirable outcomes.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Spanking Is Associated With Higher Risk for Detrimental Outcomes
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Shadish et al., 2001
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“many researchers have argued that spanking and physical abuse are on a continuum of violence against children, and that spanking can escalate into physical abuse (Straus, 2001)”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Spanking Alone Is Associated With Detrimental Outcomes, but in Similar Ways to Physical Abuse
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Straus, 2001
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“randomized experiments of spanking are difficult if not ethically impossible to conduct, and thus this shortcoming of the literature will be difficult to correct through future studies.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Limitations
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Randomized experiments of spanking are ethically impossible or difficult to conduct.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As most of the included studies were correlational or retrospective (72%), causal links between spanking and child outcomes cannot be established by these meta-analyses.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Spanking Is Associated With Higher Risk for Detrimental Outcomes
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Across study designs, countries, and age groups, spanking has been linked with detrimental outcomes for children, a fact supported by several key methodologically strong studies that isolate the ability of spanking to predict child outcomes over time.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Conclusion
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“A major concern raised about the spanking literature in general and previous meta-analyses in particular is that their reliance on cross-sectional designs may mask what are truly child-elicitation effects (Baumrind et al., 2002; Ferguson, 2013; Larzelere et al., 2004). In other words, associations between spanking and problematic behavior may reflect the fact that difficult children elicit more sp”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Spanking Effect Sizes Are Similar Across Study Characteristics
What the sources say
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“most instances of substantiated physical abuse (75%), like all instances of spanking, begin as responses to children’s misbehavior (Durrant et al., 2006).”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Spanking Alone Is Associated With Detrimental Outcomes, but in Similar Ways to Physical Abuse
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Durrant et al., 2006
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Across all categories, methodologically stronger study designs identified the same risk for negative outcomes as did weaker study designs, suggesting that the associations between spanking and child outcomes are robust to study design.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Spanking Effect Sizes Are Similar Across Study Characteristics
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, the mean effect size for all studies from Table 2, d = .33, is closer to the mean effect size for physical abuse in Table 3 than it is to the mean effect size for spanking from these 10 select effect sizes, indicating that spanking and physical abuse have relations with child outcomes that are similar in magnitude and identical in direction.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Spanking Alone Is Associated With Detrimental Outcomes, but in Similar Ways to Physical Abuse
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper relies on this without support.
Approximately 80% of children are spanked.
“when extrapolated to the population in which 80% of children are being spanked”
The paper relies on this without support.
Randomized experiments of spanking are ethically impossible or difficult to conduct.
“randomized experiments of spanking are difficult if not ethically impossible to conduct”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“The meta-analysis of Gershoff and Grogan-Kaylor (2016) found no effect size difference between spanking and physical abuse, demonstrating that both share similar associations with detrimental child outcomes.”
From The evolved nest, oxytocin functioning, and prosocial development (2023) · cites this paper as Gershoff and Grogan-Kaylor (2016)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Over a span of five decades, numerous cross-cultural studies, longitudinal investigations (Berlin et al., 2009; Gershoff et al., 2012), and large meta-analyses (Gershoff, 2002; Gershoff and Grogan-Kaylor, 2016) provide converging evidence regarding the harmful outcomes, which include depression or depressed mood (Fergusson et al., 2008), antisocial behavior (Straus et al., 1997), substance use, Su”
From The evolved nest, oxytocin functioning, and prosocial development (2023) · cites this paper as Gershoff and Grogan-Kaylor (2016)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Statistics recomputed
Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.
- Consistentz = 14.84reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“Z = 14.84, p < .001”
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Self-check results appear here once an independent check has confirmed them.
Citations
Cites
Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences
Cohen, J. (1990) · Computers Environment and Urban Systems · doi:10.1016/0198-9715(90)90050-4 · Cited by 65,417
Bias in meta-analysis detected by a simple, graphical test
Egger, M., Smith, G. D., Schneider, M., & Minder, C. (1997) · BMJ · doi:10.1136/bmj.315.7109.629 · Cited by 56,722
Meta-analysis in clinical trials
DerSimonian, R., & Laird, N. (1986) · Controlled Clinical Trials · doi:10.1016/0197-2456(86)90046-2 · Cited by 39,552 · cited 2×
“Ferguson (2013) analyzed 45 studies; of these, 11 were included in the current meta-analyses.”
BackgroundMethod(2002) · Cited by 13,211
Borenstein, M., Hedges, L. V., Higgins, J. P. T., & Rothstein, H. R. (2021) · doi:10.1002/9781119558378 · Cited by 9,799
Gershoff, E. T. (2002) · Psychological Bulletin · doi:10.1037/0033-2909.128.4.539 · Cited by 2,165 · cited 15×
“The first and most widely cited of the meta-analyses was by Gershoff (2002).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialExposure to childhood sexual and physical abuse and adjustment in early adulthood
Fergusson, D. M., Boden, J. M., & Horwood, L. J. (2008) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2006.12.018 · Cited by 910 · cited 5×
“…outcomes 2.00 1.00 .00 1.00 2.00 Adult alcohol or substance abuse 2,596 4,796 .13 .08 .35 Baer and Corrado (1974) 93 107 .41 .13 .69 Fergusson, Boden, and Horwood (2008) 341 2,504 .29 .18 .40 Lynch et al. (2006) 576 1,640 .05 .05 .14 Tennant, Detels, and Clark (1975) 1,586 545 .13…”
BackgroundInfluentialHarbord, R. M., & Higgins, J. P. T. (2008) · The Stata Journal: Promoting communications on statistics and Stata · doi:10.1177/1536867x0800800403 · Cited by 897
Poverty, Parenting, and Children's Mental Health.
McLeod, J., & Shanahan, M. (1993) · American Sociological Review · doi:10.2307/2095905 · Cited by 839 · cited 2×
“….12 .04 Lau et al. (2010) 924 2,400 .28 .15 .41 Maguire-Jack, Gromoske, and Berger (2012) 3,870 .11 .05 .18 McKee et al. (2007) 2,582 .19 .11 .27 McLeod and Shanahan (1993) 1,733 .32 .23 .42 Child mental health problems 5,122 1,313 .53 .42 .64 Buehler and Gerard (2002) 1,401 .53 .42…”
InfluentialCommittee on the rights of the child
Vincent, G. (2009) · Docs.school Publications · Cited by 733
Cited by
Sorted by citations
Items 201–300 of 924
Walker, C. S., Stearns, M. A., & McKinney, C. (2018) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/0886260518819878 · Cited by 19
“Gershoff and Grogan-Kaylor (2016) recently conducted a meta-analysis and found similar results.”
BackgroundResultDube, M. B., Asher, L., Würbel, H., Riemer, S., & Melotti, L. (2020) · Scientific Reports · doi:10.1038/s41598-020-62094-9 · Cited by 17
Childcare Subsidy Enrollment Income Generosity and Child Maltreatment
Klika, J. B., Maguire‐Jack, K., Feely, M., Schneider, W., Pace, G. T., Rostad, W. L., Murphy, C. A., & Merrick, M. T. (2022) · Children · doi:10.3390/children10010064 · Cited by 18
“Similarly, by reducing the financial burdens and the stress of childcare, parents may be better able to use more positive parenting strategies, leading to fewer incidents of escalation of corporal punishment into physical abuse [45].”
BackgroundMedical center staff attitudes about spanking
Gershoff, E. T., Font, S. A., Taylor, C. A., Foster, R. H., Garza, A. B., Olson-Dorff, D., Terreros, A., Nielsen-Parker, M., & Spector, L. (2016) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2016.10.003 · Cited by 18
“Spanking is consistently linked with harm to children and is not effective at promoting positive child behavior (Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016).”
BackgroundSelf-citationHammad, M. A., Al-Otaibi, M. N., & Awed, H. S. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1287741 · Cited by 25
Emerson, E., & Llewellyn, G. M. (2020) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2020.104773 · Cited by 17
The effect of spanking on early social-emotional skills
Cuartas, J. A. (2021) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.13646 · Cited by 17
Cuartas, J. A. (2022) · Child Psychiatry & Human Development · doi:10.1007/s10578-022-01362-3 · Cited by 17
Lee, S., Chang, H., & Olson, S. L. (2022) · Child Psychiatry & Human Development · doi:10.1007/s10578-022-01481-x · Cited by 17
“Conversely, physical punishment (e.g., spanking) generally has been found to predict higher levels of externalizing behaviors (e.g., [15, 16]).”
Bravo, P., Kim, Y., Xerxa, Y., Koopman‐Verhoeff, M. E., Cárcamo, R. A., Oldehinkel, A. J., Hillegers, M. H. J., & Jansen, P. W. (2023) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2023.106228 · Cited by 17
Defining reasonable force: Does it advance child protection?
Durrant, J. E., Fallon, B., Lefebvre, R., et al. (2017) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2017.02.018 · Cited by 17
“…that spanking is consistently associated with negative child outcomes including aggression, antisocial behavior, externalizing and internalizing behavior problems, negative relationships with parents, lower moral internalization, and slower cognitive development (Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialContextual factors associated with the use of corporal punishment in U.S. public schools
Font, S. A., & Gershoff, E. T. (2017) · Children and Youth Services Review · doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2017.06.034 · Cited by 22
Self-citationUS Pediatricians' Attitudes, Beliefs, and Perceived Injunctive Norms About Spanking
Taylor, C. A., Fleckman, J. M., Scholer, S. J., & Branco, N. (2018) · Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics · doi:10.1097/dbp.0000000000000592 · Cited by 17
“Additional scale items were added based on newer research linking CP with more negative outcomes, research citing reasons parents tend to use CP, and also in an effort increase reliability scores.(1,25) Respondents were asked: “How often do you think that spanking leads to the child.”
BackgroundLifetime poly-victimization and psychopathological symptoms in Mexican adolescents
Méndez-López, C., Pereda, N., & Guilera, G. (2020) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2020.104883 · Cited by 17
Wolf, J. P., Freisthler, B., & McCarthy, K. S. (2021) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2021.113887 · Cited by 19
Yu, R. A., Goulter, N., & McMahon, R. J. (2021) · Child Psychiatry & Human Development · doi:10.1007/s10578-021-01205-7 · Cited by 21
Determining risk for child physical harm through the classification of economic insecurity
Conrad-Hiebner, A., & Paschall, K. W. (2017) · Children and Youth Services Review · doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2017.05.016 · Cited by 17
Rodriguez, C. M., & Wittig, S. M. O. (2018) · Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2018.11.001 · Cited by 17
Bidirectional Spillover in the Family across the Transition to Parenthood
Pu, D. F., & Rodriguez, C. M. (2020) · Family Process · doi:10.1111/famp.12549 · Cited by 13
“Meta-analyses of effect sizes indicate that spanking and physical abuse are associated with detrimental child outcomes that are similar in magnitude (Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016).”
BackgroundDuong, H. T., Monahan, J. L., Kollar, L. M. M., & Klevens, J. (2021) · Health Communication · doi:10.1080/10410236.2021.1895418 · Cited by 16
“A rigorous meta-analysis of 75 studies including almost 161,000 children found a consistent association between CP and increased risk of antisocial behavior, aggression, mental health problems, and negative relationships with parents (Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016).”
Rodriguez, C. M., Lee, S. J., & Ward, K. P. (2021) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2021.105089 · Cited by 15
Jouriles, E. N., McFARLANE, J. M., Vu, N. L., Maddoux, J. A., Rosenfield, D., Symes, L., Fredland, N., & Paulson, R. M. (2018) · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · doi:10.1037/ccp0000318 · Cited by 16
A Framework for Child Well-Being in the Gulf Countries
Lansford, J. E., Brik, A. B., & Fara, H. A. (2019) · Child Indicators Research · doi:10.1007/s12187-019-9620-5 · Cited by 16
Beller, J., Kröger, C. B., & Kliem, S. (2019) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/0886260519842857 · Cited by 16
“Importantly, CP itself is a practice that has been found to also make future child abuse more likely (Gershoff, 2002; Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016).”
BackgroundPrevalence of Parental Violent Discipline Toward Children: Findings From A Portuguese Population
Abrahamyan, A., Soares, S., Fraga, S. J. D. S., & Barros, H. (2024) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/08862605241230552 · Cited by 15
“Over the last decade, despite recognizing the pervasive nature and impact of parental violence against children, parents have continued using it to address and correct children’s misbehavior (Bassam et al., 2018; Gershoff, 2002; Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016).”
BackgroundHow to Convince Parents to Stop Spanking Their Children
Hudnut‐Beumler, J., Smith, A. E., & Scholer, S. J. (2017) · Clinical Pediatrics · doi:10.1177/0009922817693298 · Cited by 15
Boppana, S., & Rodriguez, C. M. (2017) · Journal of Child and Family Studies · doi:10.1007/s10826-017-0812-7 · Cited by 15
“adverse outcomes of physical discipline to children (Gershoff and Grogan-Kaylor 2016).”
BackgroundTroubling Children’s Families: Who Is Troubled and Why? Approaches to Inter-Cultural Dialogue
McCarthy, J. R., & Gillies, V. (2017) · Sociological Research Online · doi:10.1177/1360780417746871 · Cited by 15
Ma, J., & Klein, S. M. (2018) · Journal of Child and Family Studies · doi:10.1007/s10826-018-1200-7 · Cited by 15
Safe, stable, nurturing environments for children
Merrick, M. T., Ports, K. A., Guinn, A. S., & Ford, D. C. (2020) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-816065-7.00016-1 · Cited by 17
Scharpf, F., Kirika, A., Masath, F. B., et al. (2021) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-021-11950-y · Cited by 15
Can Discipline Education be Culturally Sensitive?
Smith, A. E., Hudnut‐Beumler, J., & Scholer, S. J. (2016) · Maternal and Child Health Journal · doi:10.1007/s10995-016-2107-9 · Cited by 16
Ma, J. (2016) · Children and Youth Services Review · doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2016.09.028 · Cited by 17
Hornor, G., Bretl, D., Chapman, E., Herendeen, P., Mitchel, N., Mulvaney, B., Quinones, S. G., & VanGraafeiland, B. (2017) · Journal of Pediatric Health Care · doi:10.1016/j.pedhc.2017.05.006 · Cited by 15
A Dynamic Approach to Risk Factors for Maternal Corporal Punishment in Early to Middle Childhood
Wilson, L. M., Lorber, M. F., & Fritz, P. A. T. (2017) · Journal of Child and Family Studies · doi:10.1007/s10826-017-0929-8 · Cited by 15
Cuartas, J. A. (2018) · Children and Youth Services Review · doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2018.08.024 · Cited by 16
Alampay, L. P., Godwin, J. W., Lansford, J. E., Oburu, P. O., Bornstein, M. H., Chang, L., Deater-Deckard, K. D., Rothenberg, W. A., Malone, P. S., Skinner, A. T., et al. (2021) · Child Maltreatment · doi:10.1177/10775595211036401 · Cited by 14
“…reviews have documented the negative outcomes associated with spanking and other forms of corporal punishment on child and adult aggression, mental health, and socioemotional competence across various measures, raters, time periods, and countries (Ferguson, 2013; Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016).”
BackgroundDurrant, J. E., Acar, E. F., McNeil, J. K., Watkinson, A. M., & McGillivray, A. (2018) · International Journal of Child Youth and Family Studies · doi:10.18357/ijcyfs83/4201718074 · Cited by 13
Ndungu, J., Jewkes, R. K., Ngcobo-Sithole, M. B., Chirwa, E. D., & Gibbs, A. (2021) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph18157923 · Cited by 14
Santini, P. M., & Williams, L. C. A. (2017) · International Journal of Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2017.04.019 · Cited by 15
“In this condition, the 20 EG mothers participated in the eight sessions of Projeto Parceria’s positive parenting unit, receiving the colored-printed Manual (Williams, Maldonado, & Araújo, 2008), while the other 20 CG participants were told they would receive the intervention later.”
Fleckman, J. M., Taylor, C. A., Theall, K. P., & Andrinopoulos, K. (2018) · Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal · doi:10.1007/s10560-018-0581-1 · Cited by 15
Does corporal punishment erode the quality of the mother–child interaction in early childhood?
Laible, D., Davis, A. N., Karahuta, E. L., & Norden, C. V. (2019) · Social Development · doi:10.1111/sode.12427 · Cited by 14
A Qualitative Analysis of Stay-At-Home Parents’ Spanking Tweets
Lee, J. Y., Grogan‐Kaylor, A. C., Lee, S. J., et al. (2020) · Journal of Child and Family Studies · doi:10.1007/s10826-019-01691-3 · Cited by 14
Self-citationCommentary: Changing the Social Norm about Corporal Punishment
Vaughan-Eden, V., Holden, G. W., & LeBlanc, S. S. (2018) · Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal · doi:10.1007/s10560-018-0592-y · Cited by 15
Child Maltreatment Prevention: Essentials for the Pediatric Nurse Practitioner
Hornor, G. (2021) · Journal of Pediatric Health Care · doi:10.1016/j.pedhc.2021.09.006 · Cited by 13
Corporal punishment and violent behavior spectrum: a meta-analytic review
Pan, Q., Chen, S.-R., & Qu, Y. (2024) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1323784 · Cited by 13
Castillo, B., Grogan‐Kaylor, A. C., Gleeson, S., et al. (2020) · Children and Youth Services Review · doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.105220 · Cited by 13
Self-citationDog-Directed Parenting Styles Mirror Dog Owners’ Orientations Toward Animals
van Herwijnen, I. R., van der Borg, J. A. M., Naguib, M., & Beerda, B. (2020) · Anthrozoös · doi:10.1080/08927936.2020.1824657 · Cited by 13
Association between Childhood Trauma and Suicidal Behavior in the General Population
Park, C., Park, I.-H., Yoo, T., Kim, H., Ryu, S., Lee, J., Kim, J., & Kim, S. (2021) · Chonnam Medical Journal · doi:10.4068/cmj.2021.57.2.126 · Cited by 13
Attitudes Toward Corporal Punishment of Children
Chung, K. L., Tay, C. E., Gan, A. Z. Q., & Tan, C. S. N. (2021) · Journal of Individual Differences · doi:10.1027/1614-0001/a000364 · Cited by 17
Anderson, K. L., & Goodnight, J. A. (2022) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2022.105679 · Cited by 14
Poulsen, A. (2018) · Children Australia · doi:10.1017/cha.2018.6 · Cited by 13
“…women grow up around violence, being corporally punished themselves, they can justify violence as a means of ‘correcting’ undesired behaviour (UNICEF, 2014), and are more likely to support the use of CP (Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016) and engage in and accept IPV as adults (Afifi et al., 2017b).”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialParenting Practices in Vietnam: An Investigation of the Psychometric Properties of the PBS-S and PCS
Heel, M. V., Vu, B. T., Bosmans, G., Petry, K., Hoang, D. T., & Leeuwen, K. G. V. (2018) · Child & Youth Care Forum · doi:10.1007/s10566-018-9469-7 · Cited by 14
“Consistent with the literature, we found significant associations between, on the one hand, conduct problems and on the other hand harsh punishment (negative), psychological control (negative), and positive parenting (positive) (Barber 1996; Gershoff and Grogan-Kaylor 2016; Janssens et al.”
BackgroundInfluentialVolling, B. L. (2017) · Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development · doi:10.1111/mono.12307 · Cited by 16
Fortier, J., Stewart-Tufescu, A., Salmon, S., MacMillan, H. L., González, A., Kimber, M., Duncan, L., Taillieu, T., Dávila, I. G., Struck, S., et al. (2021) · The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry · doi:10.1177/07067437211000632 · Cited by 11
Patton, S., Rollo, T., & Curry, T. J. (2021) · Sociology Compass · doi:10.1111/soc4.12943 · Cited by 12
Bott, S., Ruiz-Celis, A. P., Mendoza, J. A., & Guedes, A. C. (2022) · BMC Public Health · doi:10.1186/s12889-022-14453-6 · Cited by 12
“Metanalyses have found associations between physical child punishment and cognitive, behavioural, mental health and emotional problems throughout the lifespan, even when physical punishment does not meet legal definitions of child abuse [13, 14].”
BackgroundCorporal Punishment in Schools
Allison, M. A., Beers, N. S., Peterson, J. W., O’Leary, S., Bode, S. M., Baum, M., Connor, K. A., Frank, E., Gibson, E. J., Larkin, M., et al. (2023) · PEDIATRICS · doi:10.1542/peds.2023-063284 · Cited by 12
Intergenerational Chain of Violence, Adverse Childhood Experiences, and Elder Abuse Perpetration
Koga, C., Tsuji, T., Hanazato, M., Nakagomi, A., & Tabuchi, T. (2024) · JAMA Network Open · doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2024.36150 · Cited by 15
Family stress model and social support among low-income families
Negi, S., & Sattler, K. M. P. (2025) · Development and Psychopathology · doi:10.1017/s0954579425000173 · Cited by 14
Corporal Punishment and Child Aggression: Ethnic-Level Family Cohesion as a Moderator
Lee, Y., & Watson, M. W. (2017) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/0886260517704227 · Cited by 12
“Unlike the current study of the meta-analysis (Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016a) suggesting the absence of moderating effects based on ethnicity among the U.S. samples on the relation of spanking and child outcome, this study included different and severe forms of corporal punishment and a sample…”
ResultDuong, H. T., Monahan, J. L., Kollar, L. M. M., & Klevens, J. (2020) · Health Education Research · doi:10.1093/her/cyaa053 · Cited by 12
The Development, Preliminary Validation, and Clinical Application of the Quick Parenting Assessment
Sausen, K. A., Randolph, J. W., Casciato, A., Dietrich, M. S., & Scholer, S. J. (2021) · Prevention Science · doi:10.1007/s11121-021-01320-w · Cited by 12
“Consistent with recent research, we found no evidence that the associations between unhealthy parenting and behavior problems were moderated by race (Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016b).”
ResultFamily correlates of emotional and behavioral problems in Nepali school children
Ma, J., Mahat, P., Brøndbo, P. H., Handegård, B. H., Kvernmo, S. E., & Javo, A. C. (2022) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0262690 · Cited by 15
Spanking and children's social competence: Evidence from a US kindergarten cohort study
Kang, J. (2022) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2022.105817 · Cited by 14
Afifi, T. O., Salmon, S., Stewart-Tufescu, A., & Taillieu, T. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph191710580 · Cited by 12
Cuartas, J. A., Gershoff, E. T., Bailey, D. H., & McCoy, D. C. (2022) · Systematic Reviews · doi:10.1186/s13643-022-02154-5 · Cited by 15
“Following prior meta-analyses on physical punishment and child, adolescent, and adult outcomes [5], we will exclude gray literature (e.”
BackgroundMethodInfluentialSelf-citationA Biocratic Paradigm: Exploring the Complexity of Trauma-Informed Leadership and Creating Presence™
Bloom, S. L. (2023) · Behavioral Sciences · doi:10.3390/bs13050355 · Cited by 15
Gagné, M., Clément, M., Milot, T., Paradis, H., & Voyer-Perron, P. (2023) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2023.106204 · Cited by 13
Olson, S. L., Davis-Kean, P. E., Chen, M., Lansford, J. E., Bates, J. E., Pettit, G. S., & Dodge, K. A. (2018) · Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology · doi:10.1007/s10802-018-0407-9 · Cited by 13
González, M., Ateah, C. A., Durrant, J. E., & Feldgaier, S. (2019) · Behaviour Change · doi:10.1017/bec.2019.7 · Cited by 12
Parental Empathy, Aggressive Parenting, and Child Adjustment in a Noncustodial High-Risk Sample
Bi, S., & Keller, P. S. (2019) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/0886260519870165 · Cited by 13
Goulet, M., Clément, M., Hélie, S., & Villatte, A. (2020) · Child & Youth Care Forum · doi:10.1007/s10566-020-09550-9 · Cited by 15
Ofoha, D., & Ogidan, R. (2020) · International journal of psychological research · doi:10.21500/20112084.4604 · Cited by 12
Fèvre, C., Wodon, Q. T., Malé, C., Nayihouba, A., & Nguyen, H. C. (2021) · World Bank, Washington, DC eBooks · doi:10.1596/35969 · Cited by 12
Fleckman, J. M., Taylor, C. A., Storer, H. L., Andrinopoulos, K., Weil, L. E. G., Rubin‐Miller, L., & Theall, K. P. (2018) · Children and Youth Services Review · doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2018.10.019 · Cited by 13
Scott, J. C., & Pinderhughes, E. E. (2019) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2019.05.013 · Cited by 11
Addressing punitive violence against children in Australia, Japan and the Philippines
Durrant, J. E., Stewart-Tufescu, A., Ateah, C. A., Holden, G. W., Ahmed, R., Jones, A. D., Ly, G., Plateau, D. P., & Mori, I. (2020) · Journal of Pacific Rim Psychology · doi:10.1017/prp.2020.12 · Cited by 11
“Of these, 99% indicated negative outcomes (Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016).”
BackgroundVariations in the Acceptance of Parental Corporal Punishment of Children: What Matters?
Baniamin, H. M. (2021) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/08862605211035856 · Cited by 11
“…Dhaka, Bangladesh Despite empirical evidence for the negative effects of corporal punishment (CP) on children (e.g., Durrant & Ensom, 2012; Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016; MacMillan & Mikton, 2017) and the continuous efforts to prevent it by international organizations such as the United…”
BackgroundInfluentialFlorio, E., Caso, L., & Castelli, I. (2022) · Social Psychology of Education · doi:10.1007/s11218-021-09676-1 · Cited by 12
van der Kooij, I. W., Nieuwendam, J., Moerman, G., Boer, F., Lindauer, R., Roopnarine, J. L., & Graafsma, T. L. G. (2017) · Child Abuse Review · doi:10.1002/car.2475 · Cited by 11
“In their recent meta-analysis, however, they focused on the most common form of physical punishment which is known as spanking, and which they defined as ‘hitting a child on their buttocks or extremities using an open hand’ (Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016, p. 1).”
BackgroundAjduković, M., Bulat, L. R., & Sušac, N. (2017) · International Journal of Social Welfare · doi:10.1111/ijsw.12284 · Cited by 11
Clément, M., Gagné, M., & Chamberland, C. (2018) · European Review of Applied Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.erap.2018.04.004 · Cited by 11
Conflitos Conjugais e Parentais em Famílias com Crianças: Características e Estratégias de Resolução
Bolze, S. D. A., Schmidt, B., Böing, E., et al. (2017) · Paidéia (Ribeirão Preto) · doi:10.1590/1982-432727s1201711 · Cited by 11
How Do Knowledge and Attitudes About Children’s Rights Influence Spanking Attitudes?
Gallitto, E., Veilleux, G. J., & Romano, E. (2019) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/0886260519852631 · Cited by 11
“In terms of spanking outcomes, a meta-analysis of 75 studies that focused exclusively on spanking (Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016) found strong associations between spanking and a range of negative child outcomes that included aggression, antisocial behavior, externalizing and internalizing…”
BackgroundLatent Profiles of Parenting among Women Exposed to Intimate Partner Violence
Grogan‐Kaylor, A. C., Galano, M. M., Stein, S. F., Clark, H. M., & Graham‐Bermann, S. A. (2020) · Social Work Research · doi:10.1093/swr/svz028 · Cited by 11
Self-citationSeleem, M. A.-H., & Amer, R. A. R. (2020) · Middle East Current Psychiatry · doi:10.1186/s43045-020-00063-8 · Cited by 11
Ma, J., Grogan‐Kaylor, A. C., & Lee, S. J. (2020) · Aggressive Behavior · doi:10.1002/ab.21882 · Cited by 11
Self-citationBrennan, B., Stavas, N., & Scribano, P. V. (2020) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-816065-7.00012-4 · Cited by 13
Dodd, B., & Malm, E. K. (2021) · Child Psychiatry & Human Development · doi:10.1007/s10578-021-01220-8 · Cited by 10
Chung, G., Lanier, P., & Chen, D. (2021) · Child & Family Social Work · doi:10.1111/cfs.12866 · Cited by 13
Positive Parenting of Mothers with Depression and Children’s Behaviors: A Systematic Review
Silva‐Rodrigues, A. P. C., Oliveira, M. R. E., Silva, T. B. F., & Loureiro, S. R. (2021) · Trends in Psychology · doi:10.1007/s43076-021-00105-y · Cited by 11
“…health predominantly examined negative practices such as psychological control (González-Cámara et al., 2019), neglect (Mulder et al., 2018), and spanking (Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016), studies are needed to gather and organize the available scientific evidence addressing positive parenting.”
BackgroundCorporal punishment bans and adolescent suicide rates: An international ecological study
Cramm, L., Elgar, F. J., & Pickett, W. (2023) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2023.106022 · Cited by 10
Child Discipline Practices in Kosovo: Attitudes and Sociodemographic Correlates
Kelmendi, K., Arënliu, A., & Halimi, T. (2021) · Journal of Family Violence · doi:10.1007/s10896-021-00321-1 · Cited by 10
Focusing the APA Ethics Code to Include Development: Applications to Abuse
Young, G. C., & Kenny, M. C. (2022) · Journal of Child & Adolescent Trauma · doi:10.1007/s40653-022-00484-z · Cited by 10
“…relationship between corporal punishment (e.g., spanking) and poor developmental outcomes, including higher levels of aggressive behavior, lower moral internalization, weaker parent child bonds, more mental health problems, and delinquency (Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016; Gershoff et al., 2017).”
BackgroundPreschool-aged children’s hair cortisol and parents’ behavior, psychopathology, and stress
Isaac, A. J., Rodriguez, A. M., D'Anna‐Hernandez, K., Gemmell, N., Acedo, G. R., Dougherty, L. R., & Bufferd, S. J. (2023) · Psychoneuroendocrinology · doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2023.106052 · Cited by 10
The prevalence of corporal punishment in Australia: Findings from a nationally representative survey
Haslam, D. M., Malacova, E., Higgins, D. J., Meinck, F., Mathews, B., Thomas, H. J., David Finkelhor, B., Havighurst, S. S., Pacella, R., Erskine, H. E., et al. (2023) · Australian Journal of Social Issues · doi:10.1002/ajs4.301 · Cited by 10
Association Between Online Social Influence and Corporal Punishment: An Experimental Study
Duong, H. T., Nguyen, L. T. V., Vu, H. T., & Trinh, A. T. (2019) · Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal · doi:10.1007/s10560-019-00632-9 · Cited by 12
Hadjicharalambous, D. (2021) · International Journal of Social Science and Human Research · doi:10.47191/ijsshr/v4-i1-04 · Cited by 10
“…associated with child behavioral problems, less social-emotional well-being, children’s future IJSSHR, Volume 4 Issue 01 January 2021 www.ijsshr.in Page 24 behaviors (Balan et al. 2017; Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016; Font & Berger, 2015; Hawes et al. 2013; Surjadi et al. 2013; McLeod et al. 2007”
Maternal History of Childhood Violence in the Context of a Parenting Program
Altafim, E. R. P., de Oliveira, R. C., & Linhares, M. B. M. (2021) · Journal of Child and Family Studies · doi:10.1007/s10826-020-01868-1 · Cited by 10
Metadata
- Authors
- Gershoff, E. T., & Grogan-Kaylor, A.
- Affiliations
- The University of Texas at Austin (US)
- Venue
- Journal of Family Psychology
- Published
- 2016
- Volume
- 30
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 453-469
- ISSN
- 0893-3200 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1293
- PMC
- PMC7992110
- OpenAlex
- W2325391559
- Semantic Scholar
- 0d03a2e9f085f0a268b4c0a52f5ac31c17a3e5f3
- Cited by
- 931
- References
- 106
- Citations by year
- 2026: 97 · 2025: 105 · 2024: 62 · 2023: 79 · 2022: 86 · 2021: 112 · 2020: 107 · 2019: 98 · 2018: 85 · 2017: 80 · 2016: 18
- FWCI
- 125.24
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Journal of Family Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (P2CHD042849)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child Abuse and Trauma
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Social Sciences › Health › Intimate Partner and Family Violence
- Keywords
- spanking, corporal punishment, child outcomes, physical abuse, effect size, child development
- MeSH terms
- Aggression, Child, Child Abuse, Child Behavior, Child, Preschool, Humans, Male, Parent-Child Relations, Punishment, Research Design, Parenting
About these checks
Registry, retraction, Cites and statistics results are computed, not judged, with one exception: a printed reference that no index lists is read once by a model before it counts as a citation error. Claims are extracted by a model and kept only when their quote appears verbatim in the text; each cited source is then checked, with a model’s help, for whether it says what the claim relies on. Those verdicts can be wrong — read the claim’s quote and the cited source before relying on one.
A language model drew the claims from the paper on 2026-09-28, under version 3 of the claim definition (model deepseek-v4.1-flash, prompt extract-v3).
A second model labelled each claim on 2026-09-28 (model jev-1.13-20260917, definition revision gold-guideline-v0.2).
Cited sources are checked with a language model’s help (gpt-6-sol).
Statistics and arithmetic are recomputed, not judged.
Confidence bands are shown only for fields calibrated on our annotated test set. None is calibrated yet, so no band is shown.
What counts as a claim ›How we measure confidence ›How we check this ›
Are you an author, or do you see a problem with this page? Request a review
