The DOI matches its Crossref record; 104 of the 106 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 4 of the 37 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Spanking and child outcomes: Old controversies and new meta-analyses.
Open accessAbstract
Whether spanking is helpful or harmful to children continues to be the source of considerable debate among both researchers and the public. This article addresses 2 persistent issues, namely whether effect sizes for spanking are distinct from those for physical abuse, and whether effect sizes for spanking are robust to study design differences. Meta-analyses focused specifically on spanking were conducted on a total of 111 unique effect sizes representing 160,927 children. Thirteen of 17 mean effect sizes were significantly different from zero and all indicated a link between spanking and increased risk for detrimental child outcomes. Effect sizes did not substantially differ between spanking and physical abuse or by study design characteristics. (PsycINFO Database Record
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Claims the paper makes
28 Own result · 21 Own interpretation · 10 No full text of the sources · 7 Own method · 6 Sources not found · 4 Not checked yet · 3 No basis given · 2 Supported · 1 Partly supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“A series of cross-lagged studies (Berlin et al., 2009; Gershoff, Lansford, Sexton, Davis-Kean, & Sameroff, 2012; McLeod, Kruttschnitt, & Dornfeld, 1994; Sheehan & Watson, 2008) has demonstrated that spanking predicts changes in children’s behavior, over and above their initial levels and the child effect of early problem behavior on later spanking.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Limitations
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Berlin et al., 2009 source
The Results (page unavailable) describe cross-lagged models that estimated spanking-to-child-outcome paths alongside child-behavior-to-later-spanking paths. They report that spanking at age 1 predicted aggressive behavior problems at age 2, while aggressive behavior problems at age 2 did not predict spanking at age 3. The finding is specific to these low-income toddlers and these ages; other spanking-to-aggression paths were not significant. (LLM, conf=0.88)
- Supportedcites Gershoff et al., 2012 source
The Results section describes a cross-lagged model that tests whether kindergarten spanking predicts third-grade externalizing behavior while controlling for initial behavior and the reverse path from early externalizing behavior to later spanking. The Abstract reports that early spanking predicted increases in externalizing behavior, while early externalizing behavior predicted more spanking. (LLM, conf=0.93)
- Not matchedcites McLeod et al., 1994
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The remaining four meta-analyses were not significantly different from zero.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Results > Main Meta-Analyses
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Meta-analyses focused specifically on spanking were conducted on a total of 111 unique effect sizes representing 160,927 children.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Abstract
plainn = 160,927- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thirteen of 17 mean effect sizes were significantly different from zero and all indicated a link between spanking and increased risk for detrimental child outcomes.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Abstract
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Only 75 studies met all four criteria and were retained for the meta-analyses.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Method > Coding of Studies for Inclusion or Exclusion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Longitudinal effect sizes of the bivariate links between spanking and later child outcomes do not rule out the potential for a child elicitation effect; however, so few studies report a coefficient that controls only for initial child behavior (and not for a range of other covariates) that we are unable to meta-analyze them.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Remaining Concerns About the Research on Spanking and Child Outcomes > Spanking Has Only Been Linked With Negative Child Outcomes in Cross-Sectional or Methodologically Weak Studies
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Effect sizes did not substantially differ between spanking and physical abuse or by study design characteristics.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Abstract
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The magnitude of the mean effect size for spanking was 65% of the magnitude of the mean effect size for physical abuse.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Results > Moderator Analyses Comparing Spanking With Physical Abuse
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The 13 statistically significant mean effect sizes ranged in size from .15 to .64.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Results > Main Meta-Analyses
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“None of the tests were significant, indicating that the risk of publication bias for any of our mean effect sizes is small.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Results > Tests for Publication Bias
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- It may state two separate claims as one. 40
- Probably not a substantial claim. 8
- The quote only partly states this claim. 1
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“analysis of data from a national randomized controlled trial of the federal Head Start program for low income children found that parents in the program significantly reduced their spanking, which was in turn linked with decreases in child aggression over time (Gershoff, Ansari, Purtell, & Sexton, 2016).”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Limitations
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Gershoff, Ansari, Purtell, & Sexton, 2016 source
The Results report a significant reduction in spanking associated with Head Start participation. The Discussion states that reduced spanking predicted reduced child aggression over time. The paper also cautions that the indirect effect of Head Start on aggression through spanking was not statistically significant; the claim does not say that it was. (LLM, conf=0.92)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Both behaviors involve parents intentionally hitting (and hurting) children, albeit to different degrees (Gershoff, 2013)”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Spanking Alone Is Associated With Detrimental Outcomes, but in Similar Ways to Physical Abuse
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Gershoff, 2013 source
The section “Spanking Is Linked With Numerous Adverse Side Effects” states that spanking and physical abuse both involve hitting and purposefully hurting children. It says the difference is often one of degree—such as duration or force—rather than intent. (LLM, conf=0.95)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Supported
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The weighted mean effect size for spanking was d = .25, while for physical abuse it was d = .38. Both were significantly different from zero and both were positive in sign”
- Also stated in: § Spanking Alone Is Associated With Detrimental Outcomes, but in Similar Ways to Physical Abuse · plain
“Spanking in these studies was significantly associated with detrimental outcomes with an effect size d = .25, while the mean effect size for physical abuse for these studies was significant and d = .38”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Results > Moderator Analyses Comparing Spanking With Physical Abuse
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § Spanking Alone Is Associated With Detrimental Outcomes, but in Similar Ways to Physical Abuse · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The largest effect size was for physical abuse; the more children are spanked, the greater the risk that they will be physically abused by their parents.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Spanking Is Associated With Higher Risk for Detrimental Outcomes
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In childhood, parental use of spanking was associated with low moral internalization, aggression, antisocial behavior, externalizing behavior problems, internalizing behavior problems, mental health problems, negative parent–child relationships, impaired cognitive ability, low self-esteem, and risk of physical abuse from parents.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Results > Main Meta-Analyses
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Three outcomes in childhood were not significantly associated with spanking in the meta-analyses: immediate defiance, child alcohol or substance abuse, and low-self regulation.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Spanking Is Associated With Higher Risk for Detrimental Outcomes
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In adulthood, prior experiences of parental use of spanking were significantly associated with adult antisocial behavior, adult mental health problems, and with positive attitudes about spanking.”
- Also stated in: § Spanking Is Associated With Higher Risk for Detrimental Outcomes · plain
“Three of the four adult outcomes were significantly associated with a history of spanking from parents: adult antisocial behavior, adult mental health problems, and adult support for physical punishment.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Results > Main Meta-Analyses
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § Spanking Is Associated With Higher Risk for Detrimental Outcomes · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“All of the comparisons were nonsignificant, indicating that the effect sizes did not vary by study characteristic.”
- Also stated in: § Moderator Analyses by Study Characteristics · plain
“Average effect sizes also did not significantly vary based on how spanking was measured, how it was indexed, whether the raters of spanking and outcome were independent, the time period over which spanking was measured, the country of the study, or the age group of the children studied.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Results > Moderator Analyses by Study Characteristics
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § Moderator Analyses by Study Characteristics · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“An important observation about the meta-analyses is that the individual studies are highly consistent: 71% of all of the effect sizes, and 99% of the significant effect sizes, indicated a significant association between parental spanking and detrimental child outcomes.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Spanking Is Associated With Higher Risk for Detrimental Outcomes
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Of the 111 individual effect sizes, 102 were in the direction of a detrimental outcome with 78 of these statistically significant. In contrast, nine of the effect sizes were in the direction of a beneficial outcome but only one (Tennant, Detels, & Clark, 1975) was statistically different from zero.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Results > Main Meta-Analyses
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Tennant, Detels, & Clark, 1975 source
plaincorrelationaln = 111- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The overall mean weighted effect size across all of the 111 study-level effect sizes was d = .33, with a 95% confidence interval of .29 to .38; this mean effect was statistically different from zero, Z = 14.84, p < .001.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Results > Main Meta-Analyses
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Spanking was significantly associated with 13 of the 17 outcomes examined. In each case, spanking was associated with a greater likelihood of detrimental child outcomes.”
- Also stated in: § Spanking Is Associated With Higher Risk for Detrimental Outcomes · plain
“Thirteen of the 17 child outcomes examined were found to be significantly associated with parents’ use of spanking.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Results > Main Meta-Analyses
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § Spanking Is Associated With Higher Risk for Detrimental Outcomes · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A total of 111 unique effect sizes were derived from data representing 204,410 child measurement occasions; these studies included data from a total of 160,927 unique children.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Results > Main Meta-Analyses
plainn = 160,927- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Two of the studies contributed more than one effect size, yielding a total of 10 pairs of effect sizes for spanking and physical abuse.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Results > Moderator Analyses Comparing Spanking With Physical Abuse
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thirteen of 17 mean effect sizes were significantly different from zero and all indicated a link between spanking and increased risk for detrimental child outcomes.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Abstract
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
The quote only partly states this claim.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These analyses did not find any support for the contentions that spanking is only associated with detrimental outcomes when it is combined with abusive methods or that spanking is only associated with such outcomes in methodologically weak studies.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Conclusion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“While it was indeed true that the majority of studies (70%) were cross-sectional or retrospective in nature, the effect sizes for the longitudinal and experimental studies were not significantly different from the effect sizes for the cross-sectional studies (see Table 4).”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Spanking Effect Sizes Are Similar Across Study Characteristics
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The mean effect size across all studies, d = .33, was smaller than the overall mean effect size reported by Gershoff (2002), d = .40, but still statistically significant.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Spanking Alone Is Associated With Detrimental Outcomes, but in Similar Ways to Physical Abuse
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Gershoff (2002) source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The meta-analyses presented here found no evidence that spanking is associated with improved child behavior and rather found spanking to be associated with increased risk of 13 detrimental outcomes.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Conclusion
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, both effect sizes are significant and positive, indicating that both are associated with more undesirable child outcomes.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Remaining Concerns About the Research on Spanking and Child Outcomes > Spanking Has Been Confounded With Harsher Forms of Physical Punishment
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, while not a perfect solution, longitudinal bivariate coefficients are decidedly stronger methodologically than within-time coefficients.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Remaining Concerns About the Research on Spanking and Child Outcomes > Spanking Has Only Been Linked With Negative Child Outcomes in Cross-Sectional or Methodologically Weak Studies
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“All study-level effect sizes were calculated independently by each of the authors; for all effect sizes, agreement was achieved to at least the third decimal place.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Method > Coding of Effect Sizes
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The failure to reach significance for immediate defiance appears to result from the small n (150), while for child alcohol or substance abuse and low self-regulation the cause appears to be heterogeneity in effect sizes.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Spanking Is Associated With Higher Risk for Detrimental Outcomes
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Each of these four meta-analyses included a different set of articles and came to varied conclusions, namely that physical punishment is largely ineffective and harmful (Gershoff, 2002), that physical punishment is effective under certain circumstances (Larzelere & Kuhn, 2005), and that physical punishment is linked with children’s cognitive, emotional, and behavioral problems but only modestly (F”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Abstract
What the sources say
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the second step of coding, each of these 558 potential studies was coded independently by each of the authors. Any disagreements in coding were resolved through follow-up discussion.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Method > Coding of Studies for Inclusion or Exclusion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The finding that spanking was not linked with immediate defiance was unexpected given the opposite findings in the Gershoff (2002) meta-analyses.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Spanking Is Associated With Higher Risk for Detrimental Outcomes
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Gershoff (2002) source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“When discrepancies occurred in effect size calculations, the discrepancy was discussed, and then each author independently recalculated the effect size. This process was repeated, if necessary, until consensus was achieved.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Method > Coding of Effect Sizes
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“While this is clearly a beneficial outcome, the uniqueness of the sample limits the generalizability of this finding and may explain why this study is an outlier”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Spanking Is Associated With Higher Risk for Detrimental Outcomes
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“Taken together, these meta-analyses provide evidence that physical punishment is associated with negative child outcomes, particularly when the outcomes are divided into finer-grained categories (Ferguson, 2013; Gershoff, 2002) rather than when they are grouped into broad categories (Paolucci & Violato, 2004), and that harsher methods of physical punishment are more strongly associated with”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Previous Meta-Analyses of Physical Punishment and Spanking
What the sources say
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The only study that found a significant association with a beneficial outcome, Tennant, Detels, and Clark (1975), had a unique sample (U.S. Army soldiers stationed in West Germany in 1971 and 1972, most of whom were White [77%]), and found that soldiers who recalled being spanked were less likely to report using amphetamines or opiates.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Spanking Is Associated With Higher Risk for Detrimental Outcomes
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Tennant, Detels, & Clark (1975) source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The circumstances of experimentally manipulated spanking thus are likely to be unusual, leading to concern that experiments with parental spanking may suffer from a lack of external validity.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Remaining Concerns About the Research on Spanking and Child Outcomes > Spanking Has Only Been Linked With Negative Child Outcomes in Cross-Sectional or Methodologically Weak Studies
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, parents’ use of spanking is not easily or ethically studied through an experimental design, as children cannot be randomly assigned to parents with varying predispositions to spank, nor can parents typically be randomly assigned to spank or not spank.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Remaining Concerns About the Research on Spanking and Child Outcomes > Spanking Has Only Been Linked With Negative Child Outcomes in Cross-Sectional or Methodologically Weak Studies
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Two primary concerns that have been raised about past meta-analyses are that spanking has been confounded with potentially abusive parenting behaviors in some studies and that spanking has only been linked with detrimental outcomes in methodologically weak studies (Baumrind, Larzelere, & Cowan, 2002; Ferguson, 2013; Larzelere & Kuhn, 2005).”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Abstract
What the sources say
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“None of these studies using advanced statistical methods found evidence that the pathway is entirely one of selection or child elicitation, or that spanking predicts improvements in children’s behavior over time”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Limitations
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the association only indicates that milder and more severe corporal punishment are linked, and that the former may increase the risk that children will also be physically abused.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Spanking Alone Is Associated With Detrimental Outcomes, but in Similar Ways to Physical Abuse
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This finding indicates that methodologically stronger studies did not find significantly smaller effect sizes than methodologically weaker studies, lending more confidence to the findings from the main meta-analyses that include both.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Spanking Effect Sizes Are Similar Across Study Characteristics
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“given that a correlational association is a necessary condition for a causal relationship (Shadish et al., 2001), we can conclude that the data are consistent with a conclusion that spanking is associated with undesirable outcomes.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Spanking Is Associated With Higher Risk for Detrimental Outcomes
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Shadish et al., 2001
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“many researchers have argued that spanking and physical abuse are on a continuum of violence against children, and that spanking can escalate into physical abuse (Straus, 2001)”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Spanking Alone Is Associated With Detrimental Outcomes, but in Similar Ways to Physical Abuse
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Straus, 2001
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“randomized experiments of spanking are difficult if not ethically impossible to conduct, and thus this shortcoming of the literature will be difficult to correct through future studies.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Limitations
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Randomized experiments of spanking are ethically impossible or difficult to conduct.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As most of the included studies were correlational or retrospective (72%), causal links between spanking and child outcomes cannot be established by these meta-analyses.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Spanking Is Associated With Higher Risk for Detrimental Outcomes
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Across study designs, countries, and age groups, spanking has been linked with detrimental outcomes for children, a fact supported by several key methodologically strong studies that isolate the ability of spanking to predict child outcomes over time.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Conclusion
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“A major concern raised about the spanking literature in general and previous meta-analyses in particular is that their reliance on cross-sectional designs may mask what are truly child-elicitation effects (Baumrind et al., 2002; Ferguson, 2013; Larzelere et al., 2004). In other words, associations between spanking and problematic behavior may reflect the fact that difficult children elicit more sp”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Spanking Effect Sizes Are Similar Across Study Characteristics
What the sources say
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“most instances of substantiated physical abuse (75%), like all instances of spanking, begin as responses to children’s misbehavior (Durrant et al., 2006).”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Spanking Alone Is Associated With Detrimental Outcomes, but in Similar Ways to Physical Abuse
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Durrant et al., 2006
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Across all categories, methodologically stronger study designs identified the same risk for negative outcomes as did weaker study designs, suggesting that the associations between spanking and child outcomes are robust to study design.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Spanking Effect Sizes Are Similar Across Study Characteristics
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, the mean effect size for all studies from Table 2, d = .33, is closer to the mean effect size for physical abuse in Table 3 than it is to the mean effect size for spanking from these 10 select effect sizes, indicating that spanking and physical abuse have relations with child outcomes that are similar in magnitude and identical in direction.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Spanking Alone Is Associated With Detrimental Outcomes, but in Similar Ways to Physical Abuse
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper relies on this without support.
Approximately 80% of children are spanked.
“when extrapolated to the population in which 80% of children are being spanked”
The paper relies on this without support.
Randomized experiments of spanking are ethically impossible or difficult to conduct.
“randomized experiments of spanking are difficult if not ethically impossible to conduct”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“The meta-analysis of Gershoff and Grogan-Kaylor (2016) found no effect size difference between spanking and physical abuse, demonstrating that both share similar associations with detrimental child outcomes.”
From The evolved nest, oxytocin functioning, and prosocial development (2023) · cites this paper as Gershoff and Grogan-Kaylor (2016)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Over a span of five decades, numerous cross-cultural studies, longitudinal investigations (Berlin et al., 2009; Gershoff et al., 2012), and large meta-analyses (Gershoff, 2002; Gershoff and Grogan-Kaylor, 2016) provide converging evidence regarding the harmful outcomes, which include depression or depressed mood (Fergusson et al., 2008), antisocial behavior (Straus et al., 1997), substance use, Su”
From The evolved nest, oxytocin functioning, and prosocial development (2023) · cites this paper as Gershoff and Grogan-Kaylor (2016)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Statistics recomputed
Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.
- Consistentz = 14.84reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“Z = 14.84, p < .001”
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Self-check results appear here once an independent check has confirmed them.
Citations
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Sorted by citations
Items 401–500 of 924
Duong, H. T. (2021) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/08862605211035879 · Cited by 6
“Another meta-analysis of 75 studies focusing solely on spanking reveals that spanking alone is associated with harmful outcomes for children (Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016).”
BackgroundRichardson, H. L., & Damashek, A. L. (2021) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/08862605211054101 · Cited by 6
Values and Beliefs as Risk and Protective Factors for Physical Punishment
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“In sum, children who largely receive power assertion strategies tend to experience negative outcomes relative to children who do not (Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016; Lynch et al., 2006; Straus & Stewart, 1999), whereas children who receive inductive discipline strategies have better psychological…”
BackgroundInfluentialChild Physical Abuse and Neglect
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Grusec, J. E. (2021) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-19650-3_2399 · Cited by 7
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“51,52 These effects may be especially pronounced in migrant families with limited resources and social support.”
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“predict corporal punishment [16,8] but corporal punishment is known to be a kind of aggression and cause aggression as well [31,32] Researchers suggested that spanking the child increases the likelihood of the child’s exhibiting aggression and externalizing behaviour [3,31,32].”
BackgroundThe Gender Perspective on Parent-to-child Aggression: Gender and Gender-constellations
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“Research literature provides profound evidence that in all its forms, parental aggression is harmful to the child (Donovan & Brassard, 2011; Gershoff, 2010; Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016; Morimoto & Sharma, 2004).”
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“Recently, Gershoff and Grogan-Kaylor (2016) conducted a meta-analysis based on 1,574 articles and found that spanking was significantly linked to detrimental cognitive and social-emotional outcomes, including low self-regulation, low self-esteem, lower mental health, and aggression.”
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“A recent meta-analysis that included 75 studies on spanking (Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016) found that among the 79 significant effect sizes, 99% demonstrated a statistically significant association between spanking and such negative child outcomes as antisocial behavior, externalizing and…”
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“In addition, these children may be found to have a lower capacity for moral judgment, along with lower cognitive ability and self-esteem (Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016).”
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“…and the use of physical punishment is associated with children ’ s mental and physical health problems (Afifi et al., 2013; Gershoff et al., 2018; Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016), this finding suggests that providing a parenting-focused intervention in one generation may positively impact the…”
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“…with negative behavioral, mental health, and developmental outcomes for children (Alampay et al., 2017; Berlin et al., 2009; Gershoff, 2002; Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016; Lee, Taylor, Altschul, & Rice, 2013; Taylor, Manganello, Lee, & Rice, 2010) and substance use and suicidal ideation…”
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Malkin, M. L., & McKinney, C. (2018) · Journal of Family Issues · doi:10.1177/0192513x18819218 · Cited by 4
Klithih: Faktor Risiko dan Developmental Pathway Pelakunya
Febriani, A. (2018) · Humanitas Indonesian Psychological Journal · doi:10.26555/humanitas.v15i2.10536 · Cited by 5
Child Maltreatment: Physical, Emotional and Sexual Abuse of Children and Child Neglect
Frieze, I. H., Newhill, C. E., & Fusco, R. A. (2020) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-42608-8_6 · Cited by 5
Miller, P. G., Baldwin, R., Coomber, K., Nixon, B., Taylor, N., Hayley, A., & de Andrade, D. (2021) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2021.105396 · Cited by 5
The Influence of Race and Income on Community Mothers’ Acceptance of Child Management Methods
Plessy, K. S., Long, A. C. J., & Kelley, M. L. (2017) · Behavior Therapy · doi:10.1016/j.beth.2017.12.011 · Cited by 6
Rowland, A. G., Fussey, E., Gerry, F., Herbert, B., Schaff, O., Higgins, D. J., & Havighurst, S. S. (2025) · Children and Youth Services Review · doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2025.108175 · Cited by 5
Corporal punishment of children
World Health Organization (2025) · World Health Organization eBooks · doi:10.2471/b09424 · Cited by 6
Oti, R., & Doe, V. A. (2025) · ShodhVichar Journal of Media and Mass Communication · doi:10.29121/shodhvichar.v1.i1.2025.7 · Cited by 4
Parenting Interventions to Prevent and Reduce Physical Punishment: A Scoping Review
Dávila, I. G., Stewart-Tufescu, A., Linton, J., McCarthy, J., Gill, S., Newton, A. C., Salmon, S., Taillieu, T., & Afifi, T. O. (2024) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph21111539 · Cited by 4
“…in childhood is associated with an increased risk of long-term detrimental cognitive [3–7], behavioural [3,4,6,8], physical [8], and mental health outcomes [6,7,9–12]; risk of experiencing other forms of physical violence [13,14]; and risk of violent behaviour spectrum (e.g., violent crime) [15].”
Landa–Blanco, M., Echenique, Y., Cruz‐Quintana, F., et al. (2025) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/08862605251336785 · Cited by 4
“…and physical abuse becomes particularly blurry when examining meta-analysis results, which reveal that the associations between spanking—a form of CP—and physical abuse with child outcomes are similar in effect size, suggesting comparable developmental impacts (Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016).”
InfluentialLangridge, F. C., Ofanoa, M., Aho, G., Guttenbeil-Likiliki, O., Fakakovikaetau, T., Wilkinson‐Meyers, L., Percival, T., & Grant, C. C. (2020) · Children and Youth Services Review · doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.105679 · Cited by 6
Does Family Context Moderate the Effects of Discrimination on Emerging Adults’ Health?
Kim, Y., Schacter, H. L., Corner, G. W., Rasmussen, H. F., & Margolin, G. (2021) · Journal of Family Issues · doi:10.1177/0192513x21993196 · Cited by 5
“Direct effects of parent-to-child aggression are associated with adult mental health problems, substance abuse issues, and physical health problems (Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016; Herrenkohl et al., 2013), and parent-to-parent aggression is similarly associated with increased mental health…”
BackgroundScott, J. K., Simons, C., & Harden, B. J. (2023) · Family Relations · doi:10.1111/fare.12821 · Cited by 4
Ateah, C. A., Khondkar, L., Milon, F., & Rabbani, R. (2023) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph20031873 · Cited by 5
The use of corporal punishment and physical disciplinary techniques by Flemish mothers
Vanderfaeillie, J., Eynde, K. V., Blyenbergh, E. V., Verheyden, C., Dooren, E. V., & Holen, F. V. (2023) · Child & Family Social Work · doi:10.1111/cfs.13053 · Cited by 5
Bai, R., Fleckman, J., Ruiz, R. L., Leblanc, S., Gilbert, H. N., & Taylor, C. A. (2023) · Research in Human Development · doi:10.1080/15427609.2023.2232715 · Cited by 3
“…to negative outcomes such as child behavioral problems (e.g., aggressive behaviors, anti-social behaviors, impulsivity), a higher risk of developing mental health disorders, and reportable physical abuse (Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016; Heilmann et al., 2021; Ma et al., 2021; Zolotor et al., 2011).”
BackgroundFleckman, J. M., Taylor, C. A., Gershoff, E. T., David Finkelhor, B., Holden, G. W., & Klika, J. B. (2023) · Public Health · doi:10.1016/j.puhe.2023.06.026 · Cited by 4
Self-citationPolick, C. S., Ploutz-Snyder, R. J., Braley, T. J., Connell, C. M., & Stoddard, S. A. (2023) · PLoS ONE · doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0292233 · Cited by 4
González, C., Morawska, A., Higgins, D. J., & Haslam, D. M. (2023) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2023.106565 · Cited by 6
Predictors of harsh discipline practices among rural households in Côte d'Ivoire
Kumar, A., Chen, S., Jasińska, K. K., Ogan, A., Nzalé, S. K., & Wolf, S. (2025) · Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2025.101785 · Cited by 4
Rus, A. V., Stativă, E., Parris, S. R., Pennings, J. S., Butterfield, M. E., Lee, W. C., & Gavrilovici, O. (2017) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-57990-0_3 · Cited by 4
Proulx, M. L., Douglas, E. M., & Straus, M. A. (2018) · International Journal of Law Policy and the Family · doi:10.1093/lawfam/eby010 · Cited by 4
Lin, J. (2020) · Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology · doi:10.1177/0022022120913615 · Cited by 4
“Despite the normativity of physical punishment in a country, relations to negative child outcomes remain (Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016; Lansford et al., 2005).”
BackgroundLogan, M. W., Paré, P., & Dulisse, B. C. (2020) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/0886260520922343 · Cited by 4
“…work and family studies, and pediatrics (among others)—have generated and inspired debates regarding the effects of parental discipline and, more specifically, what it does and does not do for children (for comprehensive meta-analytic reviews, see Gershoff, 2002; Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialKirika, A., & Hecker, T. (2022) · Verhaltenstherapie · doi:10.1159/000525237 · Cited by 4
Sun, W., Guo, T., Spruyt, K., & Liu, Z. (2022) · International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health · doi:10.3390/ijerph19159731 · Cited by 6
“A meta-analysis by Gershoff and Grogan-Kaylor indicated that 69.4% of harsh parenting studies were from the United States [21], with the remaining small number of studies from Western Europe, and that there is a paucity of relevant studies based on Eastern cultural backgrounds.”
BackgroundInfluentialPace, G. T., Lee, J. Y., Schneider, W., et al. (2022) · International Journal on Child Maltreatment Research Policy and Practice · doi:10.1007/s42448-022-00124-x · Cited by 4
Martinez, N. T., Serdarević, F., Tahirović, E., Daenekindt, S., Keizer, R., Jansen, P. W., & Tiemeier, H. W. (2024) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2024.116667 · Cited by 4
Teorías subjetivas sobre disciplina parental en literatura para padres
Castro-Carrasco, P. J., Cuadra-Martínez, D. J., & González, C. H. (2019) · Revista chilena de pediatría · doi:10.32641/rchped.v90i1.811 · Cited by 4
Trust in expert versus lay comments in online articles about spanking and car seat safety.
Scott, J. K., & Gershoff, E. T. (2020) · Journal of Family Psychology · doi:10.1037/fam0000784 · Cited by 4
Self-citationMenand, V., Clément, M., & April, J. (2021) · Journal of Early Childhood Teacher Education · doi:10.1080/10901027.2021.1918295 · Cited by 4
“…that children aged 3 to 6 are more at risk of suffering from CP than children of other age groups (Clément et al., 2019) and that the risk of escalation to physical abuse is high (Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016), this study outlines the important role played by ECEs in the prevention of abuse.”
BackgroundPhysical ‘Discipline’, Child Abuse, and Children’s Rights
Saunders, B. J. (2019) · Elsevier eBooks · doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-815344-4.00012-x · Cited by 4
Wong, R. S., Tung, K. T. S., Cheng, A. W. F., Shiu, Y. K., Wong, W. H. S., Tso, W. W. Y., Ho, M. S. P., Chan, K. L., Ho, F. K. W., Lo, C. K. M., et al. (2021) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/0886260519849661 · Cited by 4
“These coercive behaviors may in turn exacerbate children’s emotional and behavioral problems (Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016), thereby creating a vicious cycle between abusive parenting and child defiant behaviors.”
BackgroundAdams, C. J. (2020) · The Psychoanalytic Study of the Child · doi:10.1080/00797308.2020.1690870 · Cited by 4
“At the same time, numerous studies and meta-analyses suggest that not only is it ineffective but that it also can be psychological injurious (Gershoff and Grogan-Kaylor 2016).”
BackgroundVásquez‐Echeverría, A., Alvarez-Nuñez, L. S., González, M., & Rudnitzky, F. (2020) · Child Psychiatry & Human Development · doi:10.1007/s10578-020-01015-3 · Cited by 4
Violence During Early Childhood and Child DevelopmentPreprint
Berthelon, M., Contreras, D., Krüger, D., & Palma, M. I. (2018) · SSRN Electronic Journal · doi:10.2139/ssrn.3301743 · Cited by 6
Parenting Online: Analyzing Information Provided by Parenting-Focused Twitter AccountsPreprint
Ryan, R. M., Davis-Kean, P. E., Bode, L., et al. (2021) · doi:10.31234/osf.io/n3teh · Cited by 4
Zhao, Z., Liu, Z., Gu, Q., Luo, Q., Zhao, Q., Xiong, C., & Ni, X. (2013) · PubMed · Cited by 4
Welfare Reform and the Quality of Young Children's Home Environments
Kalil, A., Corman, H., Dave, D., Schwartz‐Soicher, O., & Reichman, N. E. (2022) · National Bureau of Economic Research · doi:10.3386/w30407 · Cited by 4
“…cognitive skills (Eisenberg et al. 2001, Hane and Fox 2006, Kochanska 2002, Tamis‐LeMonda et al. 2001) and numerous studies have found associations between corporal punishment, such as spanking, and a host of adverse cognitive and socioemotional child outcomes (Gershoff and Grogan-Kaylor 2016).”
Harris, K., Harris, C., & Dunkley, L. (2022) · Journal of Childhood Education & Society · doi:10.37291/2717638x.202232155 · Cited by 3
“…State University, Counseling and Human Services, Johnson City, TN, USA, e-mail: dunkleyl@etsu.edu, ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5319-3131 (Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016; Heilmann et al., 2021; Piko et al., 2012; Yildirim et al., 2020); although positive effects of physical discipline…”
BackgroundRakotom, S. V. T. V. S., Nyalali, K., Wamoyi, J., Onduru, O. G., Mshana, G. H., Stok, F. M., Yerkes, M. A., & de Wit, J. B. F. (2025) · Implementation Science Communications · doi:10.1186/s43058-024-00684-8 · Cited by 3
Puno, A., Bhatia, A., Jeong, J., & Kim, R. (2025) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2025.107363 · Cited by 5
Islam, M. J., Hossain, M., & Haque, S. T. (2025) · International Journal of Educational Development · doi:10.1016/j.ijedudev.2025.103360 · Cited by 4
Mota, C. P., & de Assunção, S. (2020) · Suma Psicológica · doi:10.14349/sumapsi.2020.v27.n2.4 · Cited by 3
Unpacking the Association Between Corporal Punishment and Criminal Involvement
Joyner, B., & Beaver, K. M. (2022) · Criminal Justice and Behavior · doi:10.1177/00938548221107874 · Cited by 4
“Wave 3 corporal punishment significantly predicted Wave 4 criminal involvement (β = 0.052). discUssion A long line of research has examined the importance of parenting, including parental styles of discipline, on virtually every aspect of child development (e.g., gershoff & grogan-Kaylor, 2016).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialSocial Workers Should Stand against Physical Punishment of Children
Lee, S. J. (2023) · Social Work · doi:10.1093/sw/swad022 · Cited by 3
Conway, C. A., Falconier, M. K., & Kim, J. (2023) · Contemporary Family Therapy · doi:10.1007/s10591-023-09681-w · Cited by 5
“…(Rodriguez et al., 2022), lower academic achievement (Pinquart, 2016 ), difficulties with peers (Hotal - ing et al., 1988 ), and substance abuse (Hinnant et al., 2015) among other internalizing and externalizing problems (for a review see Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016 & Pinquart, 2017 ).”
Bonnet, D., & Delanoë, D. (2023) · L Autre · doi:10.3917/lautr.071.0174 · Cited by 3
Li, X., Gong, X., & Zhou, J. (2025) · Learning and Instruction · doi:10.1016/j.learninstruc.2025.102115 · Cited by 3
VII. DEVELOPMENTAL TRAJECTORIES OF CHILDREN’S EMOTIONAL REACTIVITY AFTER THE BIRTH OF A SIBLING
Kuo, P. X., Volling, B. L., Gonzalez, R., Oh, W., & Yu, T. (2017) · Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development · doi:10.1111/mono.12313 · Cited by 3
“Given that parents’ use of corporal punishment is linked with detrimental child outcomes, including more internalizing problems (Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016), fathers who spank their children may be exacerbating child difficulties across the transition, especially when in conjunction with…”
BackgroundParental Violence, Deprivation and Migrant Background
Enzmann, D., & Kammigan, I. (2018) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-89462-1_4 · Cited by 3
van Esch, L., Ceulemans, E., Leeuwen, K. G. V., & Noens, I. L. J. (2019) · Research in Autism · doi:10.1016/j.rasd.2019.05.003 · Cited by 6
The Problem of Physical Punishment and Its Persistence: The Potential Roles of Psychoanalysis
Holinger, P. C. (2020) · The Psychoanalytic Study of the Child · doi:10.1080/00797308.2020.1690856 · Cited by 3
“Increasingly sophisticated data show that physical punishment does not work and only makes matters worse – that it disrupts rather than enhances healthy development (e.g., Durrant and Ensom 2017; Gershoff and Grogan-Kaylor 2016; Sege and Siegel 2018; Straus, Douglas, and Medeiros 2014).”
BackgroundDamayanti, M., & Djuwita, E. (2021) · Jurnal Ilmu Keluarga dan Konsumen · doi:10.24156/jikk.2021.14.1.63 · Cited by 3
Clercq, B. J. D., Vanwoerden, S., Franssens, R., Leeuwen, K. G. V., Vergauwe, J., & Hofmans, J. (2021) · Personality Disorders Theory Research and Treatment · doi:10.1037/per0000490 · Cited by 5
“…as significant risk factors for childhood maladjustment (Mulvaney & Mebert, 2007), spanking still is a widely used parental strategy to correct a child’s unwanted behavior (Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016), especially when the temperamental features of the child are perceived as difficult to manage.”
Child Abuse Scale: Factor Structure and Psychometric Properties Evaluation in Bangladeshi Context
Himi, S. A., Akter, D., & Zaman, F.-T.-Z. B. (2021) · Psychological Studies · doi:10.1007/s12646-021-00600-3 · Cited by 3
Perception and Abolition of Corporal Punishment among a Sample of Respondents in Southwest Nigeria
Fakunmoju, S. B. (2021) · Child Abuse Review · doi:10.1002/car.2715 · Cited by 3
Pais/Cuidadores Com e Sem Histórico de Abuso: Punições Corporais e Características Psicológicas
Azevedo, R. N., & Bazon, M. R. (2021) · Psicologia Ciência e Profissão · doi:10.1590/1982-3703003207756 · Cited by 3
Parents Who Physically Abuse: Current Status and Future Directions
Rodriguez, C. M., & Pu, D. F. (2021) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-319-89999-2_183 · Cited by 3
Uso de disciplina violenta na infância
Sinhorinho, S. M., & de Moura, A. T. M. S. (2022) · Revista Brasileira de Medicina de Família e Comunidade · doi:10.5712/rbmfc17(44)2835 · Cited by 3
Parenting online: analyzing information provided by parenting-focused Twitter accounts
Ryan, R. M., Davis-Kean, P. E., Bode, L., Krüger, J., Mneimneh, Z., & Singh, L. (2022) · Atlantic Journal of Communication · doi:10.1080/15456870.2022.2061713 · Cited by 7
“For example, copious research has identified the negative effects of corporal punishment on children’s social and emotional development (Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016), and survey research has identified a sharp decline in parents’ reported use of physical discipline over the past 30 years (Ryan,…”
BackgroundPerron-Tremblay, R., Clément, M., & Dubois‐Comtois, K. (2023) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2023.106284 · Cited by 3
Wang, Y., Zhang, L., & Zhai, F. (2023) · Infant and Child Development · doi:10.1002/icd.2446 · Cited by 3
Fraga, S. J. D. S., Abrahamyan, A., Amorim, M., & Soares, S. (2023) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-031-31547-3_76 · Cited by 3
Metadata
- Authors
- Gershoff, E. T., & Grogan-Kaylor, A.
- Affiliations
- The University of Texas at Austin (US)
- Venue
- Journal of Family Psychology
- Published
- 2016
- Volume
- 30
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 453-469
- ISSN
- 0893-3200 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1293
- PMC
- PMC7992110
- OpenAlex
- W2325391559
- Semantic Scholar
- 0d03a2e9f085f0a268b4c0a52f5ac31c17a3e5f3
- Cited by
- 931
- References
- 106
- Citations by year
- 2026: 97 · 2025: 105 · 2024: 62 · 2023: 79 · 2022: 86 · 2021: 112 · 2020: 107 · 2019: 98 · 2018: 85 · 2017: 80 · 2016: 18
- FWCI
- 125.24
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Journal of Family Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (P2CHD042849)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child Abuse and Trauma
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Social Sciences › Health › Intimate Partner and Family Violence
- Keywords
- spanking, corporal punishment, child outcomes, physical abuse, effect size, child development
- MeSH terms
- Aggression, Child, Child Abuse, Child Behavior, Child, Preschool, Humans, Male, Parent-Child Relations, Punishment, Research Design, Parenting
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