The DOI matches its Crossref record; 104 of the 106 references it cites were found in a registry or an index; 4 of the 37 sources its claims cite were checked for support.
Spanking and child outcomes: Old controversies and new meta-analyses.
Open accessAbstract
Whether spanking is helpful or harmful to children continues to be the source of considerable debate among both researchers and the public. This article addresses 2 persistent issues, namely whether effect sizes for spanking are distinct from those for physical abuse, and whether effect sizes for spanking are robust to study design differences. Meta-analyses focused specifically on spanking were conducted on a total of 111 unique effect sizes representing 160,927 children. Thirteen of 17 mean effect sizes were significantly different from zero and all indicated a link between spanking and increased risk for detrimental child outcomes. Effect sizes did not substantially differ between spanking and physical abuse or by study design characteristics. (PsycINFO Database Record
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Claims the paper makes
28 Own result · 21 Own interpretation · 10 No full text of the sources · 7 Own method · 6 Sources not found · 4 Not checked yet · 3 No basis given · 2 Supported · 1 Partly supported
The cited sources support only part of this claim — read each source’s verdict below.
In the paper
“A series of cross-lagged studies (Berlin et al., 2009; Gershoff, Lansford, Sexton, Davis-Kean, & Sameroff, 2012; McLeod, Kruttschnitt, & Dornfeld, 1994; Sheehan & Watson, 2008) has demonstrated that spanking predicts changes in children’s behavior, over and above their initial levels and the child effect of early problem behavior on later spanking.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Limitations
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Berlin et al., 2009 source
The Results (page unavailable) describe cross-lagged models that estimated spanking-to-child-outcome paths alongside child-behavior-to-later-spanking paths. They report that spanking at age 1 predicted aggressive behavior problems at age 2, while aggressive behavior problems at age 2 did not predict spanking at age 3. The finding is specific to these low-income toddlers and these ages; other spanking-to-aggression paths were not significant. (LLM, conf=0.88)
- Supportedcites Gershoff et al., 2012 source
The Results section describes a cross-lagged model that tests whether kindergarten spanking predicts third-grade externalizing behavior while controlling for initial behavior and the reverse path from early externalizing behavior to later spanking. The Abstract reports that early spanking predicted increases in externalizing behavior, while early externalizing behavior predicted more spanking. (LLM, conf=0.93)
- Not matchedcites McLeod et al., 1994
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
boosteddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- Supported
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The remaining four meta-analyses were not significantly different from zero.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Results > Main Meta-Analyses
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Meta-analyses focused specifically on spanking were conducted on a total of 111 unique effect sizes representing 160,927 children.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Abstract
plainn = 160,927- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thirteen of 17 mean effect sizes were significantly different from zero and all indicated a link between spanking and increased risk for detrimental child outcomes.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Abstract
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Only 75 studies met all four criteria and were retained for the meta-analyses.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Method > Coding of Studies for Inclusion or Exclusion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Longitudinal effect sizes of the bivariate links between spanking and later child outcomes do not rule out the potential for a child elicitation effect; however, so few studies report a coefficient that controls only for initial child behavior (and not for a range of other covariates) that we are unable to meta-analyze them.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Remaining Concerns About the Research on Spanking and Child Outcomes > Spanking Has Only Been Linked With Negative Child Outcomes in Cross-Sectional or Methodologically Weak Studies
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Effect sizes did not substantially differ between spanking and physical abuse or by study design characteristics.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Abstract
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The magnitude of the mean effect size for spanking was 65% of the magnitude of the mean effect size for physical abuse.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Results > Moderator Analyses Comparing Spanking With Physical Abuse
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The 13 statistically significant mean effect sizes ranged in size from .15 to .64.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Results > Main Meta-Analyses
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“None of the tests were significant, indicating that the risk of publication bias for any of our mean effect sizes is small.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Results > Tests for Publication Bias
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
- It may state two separate claims as one. 40
- Probably not a substantial claim. 8
- The quote only partly states this claim. 1
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“analysis of data from a national randomized controlled trial of the federal Head Start program for low income children found that parents in the program significantly reduced their spanking, which was in turn linked with decreases in child aggression over time (Gershoff, Ansari, Purtell, & Sexton, 2016).”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Limitations
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Gershoff, Ansari, Purtell, & Sexton, 2016 source
The Results report a significant reduction in spanking associated with Head Start participation. The Discussion states that reduced spanking predicted reduced child aggression over time. The paper also cautions that the indirect effect of Head Start on aggression through spanking was not statistically significant; the claim does not say that it was. (LLM, conf=0.92)
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Supported
Every source the paper cites for this claim was checked and supports it.
In the paper
“Both behaviors involve parents intentionally hitting (and hurting) children, albeit to different degrees (Gershoff, 2013)”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Spanking Alone Is Associated With Detrimental Outcomes, but in Similar Ways to Physical Abuse
What the sources say
- Supportedcites Gershoff, 2013 source
The section “Spanking Is Linked With Numerous Adverse Side Effects” states that spanking and physical abuse both involve hitting and purposefully hurting children. It says the difference is often one of degree—such as duration or force—rather than intent. (LLM, conf=0.95)
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Supported
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The weighted mean effect size for spanking was d = .25, while for physical abuse it was d = .38. Both were significantly different from zero and both were positive in sign”
- Also stated in: § Spanking Alone Is Associated With Detrimental Outcomes, but in Similar Ways to Physical Abuse · plain
“Spanking in these studies was significantly associated with detrimental outcomes with an effect size d = .25, while the mean effect size for physical abuse for these studies was significant and d = .38”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Results > Moderator Analyses Comparing Spanking With Physical Abuse
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § Spanking Alone Is Associated With Detrimental Outcomes, but in Similar Ways to Physical Abuse · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The largest effect size was for physical abuse; the more children are spanked, the greater the risk that they will be physically abused by their parents.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Spanking Is Associated With Higher Risk for Detrimental Outcomes
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In childhood, parental use of spanking was associated with low moral internalization, aggression, antisocial behavior, externalizing behavior problems, internalizing behavior problems, mental health problems, negative parent–child relationships, impaired cognitive ability, low self-esteem, and risk of physical abuse from parents.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Results > Main Meta-Analyses
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Three outcomes in childhood were not significantly associated with spanking in the meta-analyses: immediate defiance, child alcohol or substance abuse, and low-self regulation.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Spanking Is Associated With Higher Risk for Detrimental Outcomes
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In adulthood, prior experiences of parental use of spanking were significantly associated with adult antisocial behavior, adult mental health problems, and with positive attitudes about spanking.”
- Also stated in: § Spanking Is Associated With Higher Risk for Detrimental Outcomes · plain
“Three of the four adult outcomes were significantly associated with a history of spanking from parents: adult antisocial behavior, adult mental health problems, and adult support for physical punishment.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Results > Main Meta-Analyses
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § Spanking Is Associated With Higher Risk for Detrimental Outcomes · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“All of the comparisons were nonsignificant, indicating that the effect sizes did not vary by study characteristic.”
- Also stated in: § Moderator Analyses by Study Characteristics · plain
“Average effect sizes also did not significantly vary based on how spanking was measured, how it was indexed, whether the raters of spanking and outcome were independent, the time period over which spanking was measured, the country of the study, or the age group of the children studied.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Results > Moderator Analyses by Study Characteristics
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § Moderator Analyses by Study Characteristics · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“An important observation about the meta-analyses is that the individual studies are highly consistent: 71% of all of the effect sizes, and 99% of the significant effect sizes, indicated a significant association between parental spanking and detrimental child outcomes.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Spanking Is Associated With Higher Risk for Detrimental Outcomes
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“Of the 111 individual effect sizes, 102 were in the direction of a detrimental outcome with 78 of these statistically significant. In contrast, nine of the effect sizes were in the direction of a beneficial outcome but only one (Tennant, Detels, & Clark, 1975) was statistically different from zero.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Results > Main Meta-Analyses
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Tennant, Detels, & Clark, 1975 source
plaincorrelationaln = 111- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The overall mean weighted effect size across all of the 111 study-level effect sizes was d = .33, with a 95% confidence interval of .29 to .38; this mean effect was statistically different from zero, Z = 14.84, p < .001.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Results > Main Meta-Analyses
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Spanking was significantly associated with 13 of the 17 outcomes examined. In each case, spanking was associated with a greater likelihood of detrimental child outcomes.”
- Also stated in: § Spanking Is Associated With Higher Risk for Detrimental Outcomes · plain
“Thirteen of the 17 child outcomes examined were found to be significantly associated with parents’ use of spanking.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Results > Main Meta-Analyses
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Also stated in: § Spanking Is Associated With Higher Risk for Detrimental Outcomes · plain
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“A total of 111 unique effect sizes were derived from data representing 204,410 child measurement occasions; these studies included data from a total of 160,927 unique children.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Results > Main Meta-Analyses
plainn = 160,927- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper states this without a source or data behind it here, so there is nothing to check it against. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Two of the studies contributed more than one effect size, yielding a total of 10 pairs of effect sizes for spanking and physical abuse.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Results > Moderator Analyses Comparing Spanking With Physical Abuse
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thirteen of 17 mean effect sizes were significantly different from zero and all indicated a link between spanking and increased risk for detrimental child outcomes.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Abstract
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: unclear — It is unclear why the paper says it holds.
The quote only partly states this claim.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“These analyses did not find any support for the contentions that spanking is only associated with detrimental outcomes when it is combined with abusive methods or that spanking is only associated with such outcomes in methodologically weak studies.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Conclusion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“While it was indeed true that the majority of studies (70%) were cross-sectional or retrospective in nature, the effect sizes for the longitudinal and experimental studies were not significantly different from the effect sizes for the cross-sectional studies (see Table 4).”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Spanking Effect Sizes Are Similar Across Study Characteristics
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The mean effect size across all studies, d = .33, was smaller than the overall mean effect size reported by Gershoff (2002), d = .40, but still statistically significant.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Spanking Alone Is Associated With Detrimental Outcomes, but in Similar Ways to Physical Abuse
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Gershoff (2002) source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A result the paper reports from its own data — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The meta-analyses presented here found no evidence that spanking is associated with improved child behavior and rather found spanking to be associated with increased risk of 13 detrimental outcomes.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Conclusion
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, both effect sizes are significant and positive, indicating that both are associated with more undesirable child outcomes.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Remaining Concerns About the Research on Spanking and Child Outcomes > Spanking Has Been Confounded With Harsher Forms of Physical Punishment
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Thus, while not a perfect solution, longitudinal bivariate coefficients are decidedly stronger methodologically than within-time coefficients.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Remaining Concerns About the Research on Spanking and Child Outcomes > Spanking Has Only Been Linked With Negative Child Outcomes in Cross-Sectional or Methodologically Weak Studies
boosted- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“All study-level effect sizes were calculated independently by each of the authors; for all effect sizes, agreement was achieved to at least the third decimal place.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Method > Coding of Effect Sizes
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The failure to reach significance for immediate defiance appears to result from the small n (150), while for child alcohol or substance abuse and low self-regulation the cause appears to be heterogeneity in effect sizes.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Spanking Is Associated With Higher Risk for Detrimental Outcomes
hedgeddirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Each of these four meta-analyses included a different set of articles and came to varied conclusions, namely that physical punishment is largely ineffective and harmful (Gershoff, 2002), that physical punishment is effective under certain circumstances (Larzelere & Kuhn, 2005), and that physical punishment is linked with children’s cognitive, emotional, and behavioral problems but only modestly (F”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Abstract
What the sources say
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“In the second step of coding, each of these 558 potential studies was coded independently by each of the authors. Any disagreements in coding were resolved through follow-up discussion.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Method > Coding of Studies for Inclusion or Exclusion
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The finding that spanking was not linked with immediate defiance was unexpected given the opposite findings in the Gershoff (2002) meta-analyses.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Spanking Is Associated With Higher Risk for Detrimental Outcomes
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Gershoff (2002) source
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“When discrepancies occurred in effect size calculations, the discrepancy was discussed, and then each author independently recalculated the effect size. This process was repeated, if necessary, until consensus was achieved.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Method > Coding of Effect Sizes
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“While this is clearly a beneficial outcome, the uniqueness of the sample limits the generalizability of this finding and may explain why this study is an outlier”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Spanking Is Associated With Higher Risk for Detrimental Outcomes
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A claim is checked only against the cited paper’s full text, never its abstract, and none is available for its sources.
In the paper
“Taken together, these meta-analyses provide evidence that physical punishment is associated with negative child outcomes, particularly when the outcomes are divided into finer-grained categories (Ferguson, 2013; Gershoff, 2002) rather than when they are grouped into broad categories (Paolucci & Violato, 2004), and that harsher methods of physical punishment are more strongly associated with”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Previous Meta-Analyses of Physical Punishment and Spanking
What the sources say
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“The only study that found a significant association with a beneficial outcome, Tennant, Detels, and Clark (1975), had a unique sample (U.S. Army soldiers stationed in West Germany in 1971 and 1972, most of whom were White [77%]), and found that soldiers who recalled being spanked were less likely to report using amphetamines or opiates.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Spanking Is Associated With Higher Risk for Detrimental Outcomes
What the sources say
- Not checked — no full text of the sourcecites Tennant, Detels, & Clark (1975) source
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“The circumstances of experimentally manipulated spanking thus are likely to be unusual, leading to concern that experiments with parental spanking may suffer from a lack of external validity.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Remaining Concerns About the Research on Spanking and Child Outcomes > Spanking Has Only Been Linked With Negative Child Outcomes in Cross-Sectional or Methodologically Weak Studies
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, parents’ use of spanking is not easily or ethically studied through an experimental design, as children cannot be randomly assigned to parents with varying predispositions to spank, nor can parents typically be randomly assigned to spank or not spank.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Remaining Concerns About the Research on Spanking and Child Outcomes > Spanking Has Only Been Linked With Negative Child Outcomes in Cross-Sectional or Methodologically Weak Studies
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“Two primary concerns that have been raised about past meta-analyses are that spanking has been confounded with potentially abusive parenting behaviors in some studies and that spanking has only been linked with detrimental outcomes in methodologically weak studies (Baumrind, Larzelere, & Cowan, 2002; Ferguson, 2013; Larzelere & Kuhn, 2005).”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Abstract
What the sources say
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“None of these studies using advanced statistical methods found evidence that the pathway is entirely one of selection or child elicitation, or that spanking predicts improvements in children’s behavior over time”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Limitations
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“the association only indicates that milder and more severe corporal punishment are linked, and that the former may increase the risk that children will also be physically abused.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Spanking Alone Is Associated With Detrimental Outcomes, but in Similar Ways to Physical Abuse
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“This finding indicates that methodologically stronger studies did not find significantly smaller effect sizes than methodologically weaker studies, lending more confidence to the findings from the main meta-analyses that include both.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Spanking Effect Sizes Are Similar Across Study Characteristics
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
In the paper
“given that a correlational association is a necessary condition for a causal relationship (Shadish et al., 2001), we can conclude that the data are consistent with a conclusion that spanking is associated with undesirable outcomes.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Spanking Is Associated With Higher Risk for Detrimental Outcomes
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Shadish et al., 2001
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
In the paper
“many researchers have argued that spanking and physical abuse are on a continuum of violence against children, and that spanking can escalate into physical abuse (Straus, 2001)”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Spanking Alone Is Associated With Detrimental Outcomes, but in Similar Ways to Physical Abuse
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Straus, 2001
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plainconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: fails — The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim. The paper’s conclusions may not depend on it. It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“randomized experiments of spanking are difficult if not ethically impossible to conduct, and thus this shortcoming of the literature will be difficult to correct through future studies.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Limitations
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Rests on an assumption: Randomized experiments of spanking are ethically impossible or difficult to conduct.
What the paper did — it cites no source for this, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“As most of the included studies were correlational or retrospective (72%), causal links between spanking and child outcomes cannot be established by these meta-analyses.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Spanking Is Associated With Higher Risk for Detrimental Outcomes
plain- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Across study designs, countries, and age groups, spanking has been linked with detrimental outcomes for children, a fact supported by several key methodologically strong studies that isolate the ability of spanking to predict child outcomes over time.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Conclusion
plaincorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
None of the sources cited for this claim have been checked yet.
In the paper
“A major concern raised about the spanking literature in general and previous meta-analyses in particular is that their reliance on cross-sectional designs may mask what are truly child-elicitation effects (Baumrind et al., 2002; Ferguson, 2013; Larzelere et al., 2004). In other words, associations between spanking and problematic behavior may reflect the fact that difficult children elicit more sp”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Spanking Effect Sizes Are Similar Across Study Characteristics
What the sources say
hedgedconditional- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
Probably not a substantial claim.
In the paper
“most instances of substantiated physical abuse (75%), like all instances of spanking, begin as responses to children’s misbehavior (Durrant et al., 2006).”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Spanking Alone Is Associated With Detrimental Outcomes, but in Similar Ways to Physical Abuse
What the sources say
- Not matchedcites Durrant et al., 2006
Couldn’t be matched to a paper in Crossref, so it can’t be checked.
plaindirect- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: unclear — It is unclear whether the paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
- Not matched
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“Across all categories, methodologically stronger study designs identified the same risk for negative outcomes as did weaker study designs, suggesting that the associations between spanking and child outcomes are robust to study design.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Spanking Effect Sizes Are Similar Across Study Characteristics
hedged- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
A conclusion the paper draws from its own results — it cites no other source for it, so there is none to check. The quote shows it is in the paper.
In the paper
“However, the mean effect size for all studies from Table 2, d = .33, is closer to the mean effect size for physical abuse in Table 3 than it is to the mean effect size for spanking from these 10 select effect sizes, indicating that spanking and physical abuse have relations with child outcomes that are similar in magnitude and identical in direction.”
§ Spanking and Child Outcomes: Old Controversies and New Meta-Analyses > Discussion > Spanking Alone Is Associated With Detrimental Outcomes, but in Similar Ways to Physical Abuse
hedgedcorrelational- Asserted: passes — The authors put it forward as true.
- Checkable: passes — It can be checked against evidence.
- Load-bearing: passes — The paper’s conclusions depend on it.
- Based: passes — The paper gives a reason why it holds.
It may state two separate claims as one.
The paper relies on this without support.
Approximately 80% of children are spanked.
“when extrapolated to the population in which 80% of children are being spanked”
The paper relies on this without support.
Randomized experiments of spanking are ethically impossible or difficult to conduct.
“randomized experiments of spanking are difficult if not ethically impossible to conduct”
Claims other papers make about this one
Each is checked against this paper’s own text: does it say what the citing paper says it does?
The source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“The meta-analysis of Gershoff and Grogan-Kaylor (2016) found no effect size difference between spanking and physical abuse, demonstrating that both share similar associations with detrimental child outcomes.”
From The evolved nest, oxytocin functioning, and prosocial development (2023) · cites this paper as Gershoff and Grogan-Kaylor (2016)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measuredThe source backs part of the claim, not all of it — or backs it for a different population, condition or comparison.
In the citing paper
“Over a span of five decades, numerous cross-cultural studies, longitudinal investigations (Berlin et al., 2009; Gershoff et al., 2012), and large meta-analyses (Gershoff, 2002; Gershoff and Grogan-Kaylor, 2016) provide converging evidence regarding the harmful outcomes, which include depression or depressed mood (Fergusson et al., 2008), antisocial behavior (Straus et al., 1997), substance use, Su”
From The evolved nest, oxytocin functioning, and prosocial development (2023) · cites this paper as Gershoff and Grogan-Kaylor (2016)
Experimental — accuracy not yet measured
Statistics recomputed
Every reported test result, recomputed from its test statistic and degrees of freedom. A result shows as not adding up only once an independent check has confirmed it.
- Consistentz = 14.84reported p < .001 · recomputed p < .001
“Z = 14.84, p < .001”
Self-check
Percentages, sums and reported differences re-computed from the paper’s own numbers.
Self-check results appear here once an independent check has confirmed them.
Citations
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“The effectiveness of spanking as a disciplinary practice has been ontested, as spanking has been linked with several short and long term detrimental consequences to children’s mental, hysical, and behavioral health (Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016).”
BackgroundSelf-citationAfifi, T. O., Ford, D., Gershoff, E. T., Merrick, M., Grogan-Kaylor, A., Ports, K. A., MacMillan, H. L., Holden, G. W., Taylor, C. A., Lee, S. J., et al. (2017) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2017.01.014 · Cited by 246
“The association between spanking and mental health outcomes has been examined in prior studies (Durrant & Ensom, 2012; Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016; Gershoff, 2002), but the current study advances knowledge with the use of a large sample, and the ability to examine the factor structure of…”
BackgroundSelf-citationPhysical punishment and child outcomes: a narrative review of prospective studies
Heilmann, A., Mehay, A., Watt, R. G., Kelly, Y. J., Durrant, J. E., van Turnhout, J., & Gershoff, E. T. (2021) · The Lancet · doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(21)00582-1 · Cited by 239
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“Much of the global concern about corporal punishment has focused on parents’ use of it (Gershoff, 2013; Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016), yet it is also the case that corporal punishment in schools remains widespread.”
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Effective Discipline to Raise Healthy Children
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“Robust links between greater physical discipline use and physical abuse (e.g., Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016; Lee et al., 2014) are supported by findings that more frequent hitting of children is a strong risk factor for physical child abuse (Durrant et al., 2009; Zolotor et al., 2008).”
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“…punishment was associated with higher rates of immediate compliance in two meta-analyses (Gershoff, 2002; Larzelere & Kuhn, 2005); however, when Gershoff and Grogan-Kaylor (2016a) reanalyzed these studies to take into account differences in initial rates of compliance between the spanked and…”
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“Corporal punishment is not effective at increasing compliance in the short-term (Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016) or at promoting long-term compliance and moral behavior (Regev, Gueron-Sela, & Atzaba-Poria, 2012).”
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“…it is also significant that studies have found that school corporal punishment of children is associated with an increased risk of aggression and violence in childhood and into adulthood (Ani & Grantham-McGregor, 1998; Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016; Shamu et al., 2016; Youssef et al., 1999).”
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“Literature on corporal punishment was sought from 1980 to 2015, because of the small body of work completed on this type of violence in schools (there is a large body of work on parental corporal punishment; Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016).”
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Promising intervention strategies to reduce parents’ use of physical punishment
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“…unishment generally, and spanking specifically, are ineffective at improving children’s behavior and, in fact, lead to a orsening of it over time (Altschul, Lee, & Gershoff, 2016; Durrant & Ensom, 2012; Gershoff, Lansford, Sexton, Davis-Kean, Sameroff, 2012; Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016).”
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David Finkelhor, B., Turner, H. A., Wormuth, B. K., Vanderminden, J., & Hamby, S. L. (2019) · Journal of Child and Family Studies · doi:10.1007/s10826-019-01426-4 · Cited by 116
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Scaling Up Parenting Interventions is Critical for Attaining the Sustainable Development Goals
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“Children are at greater risk of developing serious mental and physical health problems when growing up in harsh, punitive or unpredictable homes characterised by family conflict and violence, abuse and neglect, low levels of positive interaction, insecure attachment, inconsistent discipline, and lack of clear boundari…”
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“Prior research has shown spanking is highly associated with child physical abuse (Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016).”
BackgroundPerspectives on parent discipline and child outcomes
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“Although, in their meta-analysis, Gershoff and Grogan-Kaylor (2016) found that physical punishment was associated with externalizing problems across all age groups, there are clearly age differences in how it is evaluated.”
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Self-citationHarsh parenting during early childhood and child development
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Corporal Punishment and Elevated Neural Response to Threat in Children
Cuartas, J. A., Weissman, D. G., Sheridan, M. A., Lengua, L. J., & McLaughlin, K. A. (2021) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.13565 · Cited by 107
“Second, a limitation that is common to the corporal punishment literature (Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016), is that it was not possible to measure the severity of spanking or identify the person who spanked the child, which are factors that may relate to different developmental outcomes.”
BackgroundResultInfluentialGershoff, E. T., Sattler, K. M. P., & Ansari, A. (2017) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0956797617729816 · Cited by 101
“The first criterion for establishing causality, namely, that spanking must be correlated with behavior problems, has already been met through several metaanalyses (Ferguson, 2013; Gershoff, 2002; Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016).”
BackgroundSelf-citationSocioeconomic Gaps in Parents’ Discipline Strategies From 1988 to 2011
Ryan, R. M., Kalil, A., Ziol‐Guest, K. M., et al. (2016) · PEDIATRICS · doi:10.1542/peds.2016-0720 · Cited by 79
Relations between parenting practices, socioeconomic status, and child behavior in Brazil
Altafim, E. R. P., McCoy, D. C., & Linhares, M. B. M. (2018) · Children and Youth Services Review · doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2018.04.025 · Cited by 81
Lokot, M., Bhatia, A., Kenny, L., & Cislaghi, B. (2020) · Aggression and Violent Behavior · doi:10.1016/j.avb.2020.101507 · Cited by 88
Liel, C., Ulrich, S. M., Lorenz, S., Eickhorst, A., Fluke, J., & Walper, S. (2020) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2020.104487 · Cited by 87
Ma, J., & Grogan‐Kaylor, A. C. (2017) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/dev0000308 · Cited by 70
“A robust literature demonstrates the associations between parental corporal punishment, a term used interchangeably with spanking in the U.S., and a wide range of adverse child outcomes (Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016; Lansford et al., 2005).”
Self-citationDoyle, F. L., Morawska, A., Higgins, D. J., Havighurst, S. S., Mazzucchelli, T. G., Toumbourou, J. W., Middeldorp, C. M., Chainey, C., Cobham, V. E., Harnett, P. H., et al. (2022) · Child Psychiatry & Human Development · doi:10.1007/s10578-021-01309-0 · Cited by 88
Gage, N. A., Grasley‐Boy, N. M., George, H. P., Childs, K. E., & Kincaid, D. K. (2018) · Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions · doi:10.1177/1098300718768208 · Cited by 82
Corporal punishment and early childhood development in 49 low- and middle-income countries
Cuartas, J. A. (2021) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2021.105205 · Cited by 62
Afifi, T. O., Fortier, J., Sareen, J., & Taillieu, T. (2019) · JAMA Network Open · doi:10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2018.7374 · Cited by 61
“18 Table 1 presents the coding of 6 antisocial behavior categories, including (1) failure to conform to social norms with respect to lawful behaviors as indicated by repeatedly performing acts that are grounds for arrest; (2) deceitfulness, as indicated by repeated lying, use of aliases, or conning others for personal…”
BackgroundSchool corporal punishment and its associations with achievement and adjustment
Gershoff, E. T., Sattler, K. M. P., & Holden, G. W. (2019) · Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2019.05.004 · Cited by 69
“This finding is consistent with studies that have found that children and youth who experience corporal punishment from their parents are more likely to experience mental health problems such as depressive symptoms (Deb et al., 2017; Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialSelf-citationMartinez, N. T., Xerxa, Y., Law, J., Serdarević, F., Jansen, P. W., & Tiemeier, H. W. (2022) · European Journal of Public Health · doi:10.1093/eurpub/ckac044 · Cited by 57
American Parents' Attitudes and Beliefs About Corporal Punishment: An Integrative Literature Review
Chiocca, E. M. (2017) · Journal of Pediatric Health Care · doi:10.1016/j.pedhc.2017.01.002 · Cited by 56
“A significant bodyof researchhas shown thatCP is not only ineffective (Durrant&Ensom, 2012;Gershoff, 2013; Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016; Hineline & RosalesRuiz, 2012) but harmful (Afifi, Brownridge, Cox, & Sareen, 2006; Gershoff, 2002, 2010, 2013; Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016; Grogan-Kaylor,…”
BackgroundInvesting in Early Childhood Development in Preschool and at Home
Duncan, G. J., Kalil, A., Mogstad, M., & Rege, M. (2022) · National Bureau of Economic Research · doi:10.3386/w29985 · Cited by 68
Heel, M. V., Bijttebier, P., Colpin, H., Goossens, L., Noortgate, W. V. D., Verschueren, K., & Leeuwen, K. G. V. (2019) · Journal of Child and Family Studies · doi:10.1007/s10826-019-01493-7 · Cited by 56
Doelman, E. H. J., Luijk, M. P. C. M., Marshall, I. H., Jongerling, J., Enzmann, D., & Steketee, M. (2021) · European Journal of Criminology · doi:10.1177/14773708211013300 · Cited by 58
“…studies suggest that physical maltreatment is associated with juvenile violent behavior independently of the severity, duration or nature of the violence (Gershoff and Grogan-Kaylor, 2016; Maas et al, 2008; Mersky et al., 2012); others showed that the timing of child maltreatment does play a role.”
Miller, S. A. (2019) · Oxford University Press eBooks · doi:10.1093/oso/9780190874513.003.0007 · Cited by 55
Altafim, E. R. P., & Linhares, M. B. M. (2019) · Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2019.03.003 · Cited by 63
Age-specific risk factors associated with placement instability among foster children
Sattler, K. M. P., Font, S. A., & Gershoff, E. T. (2018) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2018.07.024 · Cited by 52
Self-citationSpanking and Corporal Punishment Parenting Practices and Child Development: A Systematic Review
Avezum, M. D. M. D. M., Altafim, E. R. P., & Linhares, M. B. M. (2022) · Trauma Violence & Abuse · doi:10.1177/15248380221124243 · Cited by 53
“Parenting practices are crucial factors that influence the development of life skills concurrently in childhood, later adolescence (Gershoff, 2010; Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016; Kochanova et al., 2021), and adulthood (Boden et al., 2021; Mintz et al., 2017; Shibata et al., 2020).”
BackgroundResultInfluentialMa, J., Grogan-Kaylor, A., & Lee, S. J. (2018) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2017.10.013 · Cited by 51
Self-citationCuong, V. M., Assanangkornchai, S., Wichaidit, W., Hanh, V. T. M., & Hạnh, H. T. M. (2021) · Journal of Behavioral Addictions · doi:10.1556/2006.2021.00064 · Cited by 52
Beatriz, E. D., & Salhi, C. (2019) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2019.104023 · Cited by 51
Alampay, L. P., Godwin, J. W., Lansford, J. E., Bombi, A. S., Bornstein, M. H., Chang, L., Deater-Deckard, K. D., Giunta, L. D., Dodge, K. A., Malone, P. S., et al. (2017) · International Journal of Behavioral Development · doi:10.1177/0165025417697852 · Cited by 51
“Results with respect to frequency and severity in use of corporal punishment are consistent with the robust evidence linking parents’ use of physical punishment and negative outcomes in children (Gershoff, 2002a; Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016).”
BackgroundResultChildhood Corporal Punishment and Future Perpetration of Physical Dating Violence
Temple, J. R., Choi, H. J., Reuter, T. R., Wolfe, D. A., Taylor, C. A., Madigan, S. L., & Scott, L. E. (2017) · The Journal of Pediatrics · doi:10.1016/j.jpeds.2017.10.028 · Cited by 48
Supporting Parents: How Six Decades of Parenting Research Can Inform Policy and Best Practice
Teti, D. M., Cole, P. M., Cabrera, N., Goodman, S. H., & McLoyd, V. C. (2017) · Child Policy Nexus · doi:10.1002/j.2379-3988.2017.tb00090.x · Cited by 46
“Parental involvement helps children retain the educational benefi ts of these early childhood programs, but evidence indicates a need to improve parental supports through them (Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016).”
BackgroundCorporal punishment bans and physical fighting in adolescents: an ecological study of 88 countries
Elgar, F. J., Donnelly, P., Michaelson, V. E., Gariépy, G., Riehm, K. E., Walsh, S. D., & Pickett, W. (2018) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2018-021616 · Cited by 47
“A meta-analysis of 75 studies found that childhood exposure to spanking, the most common form of corporal punishment, predicted 13 of 17 negative outcomes including aggression, antisocial behaviour, mental health problems, low self-esteem and physical abuse, and to antisocial behaviour and poor mental health in adulth…”
BackgroundDeb, S., Aneesh Kumar, P., Holden, G. W., & Rowe, L. S. (2016) · School Psychology International · doi:10.1177/0143034316681378 · Cited by 45
“Nevertheless, in studies when initial levels of child behavior problems are controlled for, parental CP has been found to contribute more to behavioral problems over time (see Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016).”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialCivil conflict, domestic violence, and poverty as predictors of corporal punishment in Colombia
Cuartas, J. A., Grogan‐Kaylor, A. C., Ma, J., & Castillo, B. (2019) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2019.02.003 · Cited by 46
Self-citationFont, S. A., & Cage, J. L. (2017) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2017.06.008 · Cited by 52
Yu, J., Cheah, C. S. L., Hart, C. H., & Yang, C. (2018) · Developmental Psychology · doi:10.1037/dev0000517 · Cited by 44
“…associated with more internalizing problems in the Chinese cultural context (e.g., Kwok et al., 2017), our findings are consistent with the larger literature showing detrimental effects of physical punishment on children’s development in Western cultural contexts (Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016).”
Baker, A. J. L., LeBlanc, S. S., Adebayo, T., & Mathews, B. (2021) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2021.104932 · Cited by 61
The case against physical punishment
Grogan-Kaylor, A., Ma, J., & Graham-Bermann, S. A. (2018) · Current Opinion in Psychology · doi:10.1016/j.copsyc.2017.03.022 · Cited by 43
“4 research, found that parents’ use of spanking was associated with increases in undesirable outcomes such as aggression and child mental health problems [2].”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationMehlhausen-Hassoen, D. (2019) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/0886260519842172 · Cited by 44
“First, corporal punishment is intended to cause pain, but must not injure the child (Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016; Winstok, 2014).”
BackgroundParent Education: What We Know and Moving Forward for Greatest Impact
Morris, A. S., Jespersen, J. E., Cosgrove, K. T., Ratliff, E. L., & Kerr, K. L. (2020) · Family Relations · doi:10.1111/fare.12442 · Cited by 60
Lewis, C. R., Breitenstein, R. S., Henderson-Smith, A., Sowards, H., Piras, I. S., Huentelman, M. J., Doane, L. D., & Lemery‐Chalfant, K. (2020) · Cellular and Molecular Neurobiology · doi:10.1007/s10571-020-00885-4 · Cited by 45
Multilevel ecological analysis of the predictors of spanking across 65 countries
Ward, K. P., Grogan‐Kaylor, A. C., Pace, G. T., Cuartas, J. A., & Lee, S. J. (2021) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2020-046075 · Cited by 43
Self-citationTwin Differences in Harsh Parenting Predict Youth’s Antisocial Behavior
Burt, S. A., Clark, D. A., Gershoff, E. T., Klump, K. L., & Hyde, L. W. (2021) · Psychological Science · doi:10.1177/0956797620968532 · Cited by 43
“It has been robustly linked to deleterious mental health outcomes (Gard et al., 2017; Goulter, McMahon, Pasalich, & Dodge, 2020), including aggression and antisocial behavior, as well as poorer school performance (Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016).”
BackgroundResultSelf-citationExposure to community violence and Children's mental Health: A quasi-experimental examination
Cuartas, J. A., & Leventhal, T. (2019) · Social Science & Medicine · doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2019.112740 · Cited by 43
Global perspectives on physical and nonphysical discipline: A Bayesian multilevel analysis
Grogan‐Kaylor, A. C., Castillo, B., Pace, G. T., Ward, K. P., Ma, J., Lee, S. J., & Knauer, H. A. (2021) · International Journal of Behavioral Development · doi:10.1177/0165025420981642 · Cited by 41
“…body of literature that shows the associations of physical punishment and negative child outcomes regardless of the context in which children are disciplined, including country (Pace et al., 2019), race and ethnicity (Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016a), and neighborhood (Ma et al., 2020).”
BackgroundResultSelf-citationTeachers as agents of change: positive discipline for inclusive classrooms in Kakuma refugee camp
Mendenhall, M., Cha, J., Falk, D., Bergin, C., & Bowden, L. (2020) · International Journal of Inclusive Education · doi:10.1080/13603116.2019.1707300 · Cited by 42
Investing in early childhood development in preschool and at home
Duncan, G. J., Kalil, A., Mogstad, M., & Rege, M. (2023) · Handbook of the economics of education · doi:10.1016/bs.hesedu.2022.11.005 · Cited by 62
Kaltenbach, E., Hermenau, K., Nkuba, M. G., Goessmann, K., & Hecker, T. (2017) · Journal of Aggression Maltreatment & Trauma · doi:10.1080/10926771.2017.1357060 · Cited by 40
“…state, especially associations with depressive disorders, suicide attempts, aggression, antisocial behavior, and substance abuse (Gershoff, 2002; Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016; Hecker et al., 2014; Hyland, Alkhalaf, & Whalley, 2013; Naker, 2005; Norman et al., 2012; World Health Organization,…”
BackgroundDifferentiating corporal punishment from physical abuse in the prediction of lifetime aggression
King, A. R., Ratzak, A., Ballantyne, S., Knutson, S., Russell, T. D., Pogalz, C. R., & Breen, C. M. (2018) · Aggressive Behavior · doi:10.1002/ab.21753 · Cited by 39
“Spanking has been defined as hitting a child with an open hand on his or her buttocks or extremities (Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016).”
BackgroundResultPhysical punishment, physical abuse, and child behavior problems in South Korea
Ma, J., Han, Y., & Kang, H. R. (2021) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2021.105385 · Cited by 39
Cuartas, J. A. (2017) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2017.12.006 · Cited by 39
Beatriz, E. D., Salhi, C., Griffith, J. L., & Molnar, B. E. (2018) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2018.02.028 · Cited by 39
Associations between 11 parental discipline behaviours and child outcomes across 60 countries
Ward, K. P., Grogan‐Kaylor, A. C., Ma, J., Pace, G. T., & Lee, S. J. (2023) · BMJ Open · doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2021-058439 · Cited by 38
Self-citationBeckmann, L. (2019) · Journal of Family Violence · doi:10.1007/s10896-019-00102-x · Cited by 38
Goodman, M. L., Hindman, A. R., Keiser, P. H., Gitari, S., Porter, K. A., & Raimer, B. G. (2017) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/0886260516689777 · Cited by 37
“…covering multiple cultural and economic contexts, uniformly indicates that spanking has a negative effect on the short and long-term development of children (Gershoff, 2010; Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016), it is worthwhile to consider support for the behavior across cultural and economic contexts.”
BackgroundImproving Causal Inferences in Meta-analyses of Longitudinal Studies: Spanking as an Illustration
Larzelere, R. E., Gunnoe, M. L., & Ferguson, C. J. (2018) · Child Development · doi:10.1111/cdev.13097 · Cited by 37
“Gershoff’s (2002a, Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016) two meta-analyses found mean overall adverse effect sizes of d = .42 and .33 (equivalent to r = .21 and .16), respectively.”
BackgroundMethodResultInfluentialKlevens, J., Kollar, L. M. M., Rizzo, G., O’Shea, G., Nguyen, J., & Roby, S. (2019) · Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal · doi:10.1007/s10560-018-0591-z · Cited by 38
“A rigorous meta-analysis of 75 studies including almost 161,000 children found a consistent association between corporal punishment (CP) and increased risk of detrimental outcomes for children, even after studies examining child maltreatment were excluded (Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016).”
BackgroundResearchers Deserve a Better Critique: Response to Larzelere, Gunnoe, Roberts, and Ferguson (2017)
Holden, G. W., Grogan‐Kaylor, A. C., Durrant, J. E., & Gershoff, E. T. (2017) · Marriage & Family Review · doi:10.1080/01494929.2017.1308899 · Cited by 39
“To address this issue, Gershoff and Grogan-Kaylor (2016) separated “customary spanking” from forms of physical punishment that could be characterized as abusive.”
BackgroundInfluentialSelf-citationNadan, Y., & Roer‐Strier, D. (2020) · Journal of Family Theory & Review · doi:10.1111/jftr.12393 · Cited by 39
Chitsamatanga, B. B. (2020) · Journal of Human Ecology · doi:10.31901/24566608.2020/69.1-3.3203 · Cited by 36
Pu, D. F., & Rodriguez, C. M. (2021) · Child Maltreatment · doi:10.1177/1077559520985936 · Cited by 36
“Findings for mothers support the extensive literature connecting use of PCA with children’s internalizing and externalizing problems over time (e.g., Choe et al., 2013; Coley et al., 2014; Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016), yet findings for fathers do not.”
BackgroundSelf‐Brown, S., Osborne, M. C., Lai, B. S., Brown, N. D. V., Glasheen, T. L., & Adams, M. C. (2017) · Journal of Family Violence · doi:10.1007/s10896-017-9940-5 · Cited by 36
Grogan‐Kaylor, A. C., Ma, J., Lee, S. J., Castillo, B., Ward, K. P., & Klein, S. M. (2018) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2018.10.009 · Cited by 38
Self-citationMa, J., Grogan‐Kaylor, A. C., Pace, G. T., et al. (2022) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2022.105662 · Cited by 35
Self-citationTwenty-Five Years of Physical Punishment Research: What Have We Learned?*
Durrant, J. E., & Ensom, R. (2017) · Journal of korean Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry · doi:10.5765/jkacap.2017.28.1.20 · Cited by 35
Witt, A., Fegert, J. M., Rodens, K. P., Brähler, E., Silva, C. L. D., & Plener, P. L. (2017) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/0886260517731784 · Cited by 36
“In some cultures, it is considered the norm (Smith & Mosby, 2003), even though research suggests that CP is associated with negative outcomes in children (Ateah, Secco, & Woodgate, 2003; Gagne et al., 2007; Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016; Zolotor, 2014).”
BackgroundParental Education and Spanking of American Children: Blacks’ Diminished Returns
Assari, S. (2020) · World Journal of Educational Research · doi:10.22158/wjer.v7n3p19 · Cited by 34
Visser, L., van der Put, C. E., & Assink, M. (2022) · Children · doi:10.3390/children9030383 · Cited by 51
“SCP was stronger related to externalizing behavior problems than to internalizing behavior problems and school performance, which is in line with findings of a recent metaanalysis on the effects of corporal punishment in the home environment of children [16].”
ResultAre children oppressed? The timely importance of answering this question
Barth, R. P., & Olsen, A. N. (2020) · Children and Youth Services Review · doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.104780 · Cited by 32
Skar, A. S., Sherr, L., Macedo, A., von Tetzchner, S., & Fostervold, K. I. (2017) · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · doi:10.1177/0886260517736881 · Cited by 32
“A meta-analysis including 160,927 children found a clear relationship between physical abuse and adverse child development, including mental health problems and antisocial behavior (Gershoff & Grogan-Kaylor, 2016).”
BackgroundWhy Do Parents Hit Their Children? From Cultural to Unconscious Determinants
Holden, G. W. (2020) · The Psychoanalytic Study of the Child · doi:10.1080/00797308.2020.1690858 · Cited by 34
“The problems include a vast spectrum of behavioral, relationship, and emotional difficulties, as well as physical child abuse (e.g., Gershoff et al. 2018; Gershoff and Grogan-Kaylor 2016; Zolotor et al. 2011b).”
BackgroundHeel, M. V., Bijttebier, P., Claes, S. J., Colpin, H., Goossens, L., Noortgate, W. V. D., Verschueren, K., & Leeuwen, K. G. V. (2017) · Assessment · doi:10.1177/1073191116686827 · Cited by 38
Manzoni, P., & Schwarzenegger, C. (2018) · European Journal on Criminal Policy and Research · doi:10.1007/s10610-018-9392-3 · Cited by 41
Emotional Development Within the Family Context
Leerkes, E. M., & Bailes, L. G. (2019) · Springer eBooks · doi:10.1007/978-3-030-17332-6_24 · Cited by 35
Schneider, S. (2020) · Child Abuse & Neglect · doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2020.104473 · Cited by 31
Metadata
- Authors
- Gershoff, E. T., & Grogan-Kaylor, A.
- Affiliations
- The University of Texas at Austin (US)
- Venue
- Journal of Family Psychology
- Published
- 2016
- Volume
- 30
- Issue
- 4
- Pages
- 453-469
- ISSN
- 0893-3200 (ISSN-L)
- 1939-1293
- PMC
- PMC7992110
- OpenAlex
- W2325391559
- Semantic Scholar
- 0d03a2e9f085f0a268b4c0a52f5ac31c17a3e5f3
- Cited by
- 931
- References
- 106
- Citations by year
- 2026: 97 · 2025: 105 · 2024: 62 · 2023: 79 · 2022: 86 · 2021: 112 · 2020: 107 · 2019: 98 · 2018: 85 · 2017: 80 · 2016: 18
- FWCI
- 125.24
- Type
- journal article
- Language
- en
- Open access
- green
- www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
- Locations
- Journal of Family Psychology (publishedVersion)
- PubMed (publishedVersion)
- PubMed Central (acceptedVersion)
- Funders
- Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (P2CHD042849)
- Topics
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child Abuse and Trauma
- Social Sciences › Psychology › Clinical Psychology › Child and Adolescent Psychosocial and Emotional Development
- Social Sciences › Health › Intimate Partner and Family Violence
- Keywords
- spanking, corporal punishment, child outcomes, physical abuse, effect size, child development
- MeSH terms
- Aggression, Child, Child Abuse, Child Behavior, Child, Preschool, Humans, Male, Parent-Child Relations, Punishment, Research Design, Parenting
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